Psalms 73–89

The content and structure of this wisdom psalm at a glance:

Superscript

I. The Theodicy: 1–17

A. Confession of Insight: God Is Good to True Israel: 1

B. Confession of Sight: The Wicked Prosper: 2–12

1. Crisis of Faith: 2–3

2. Prosperity of the Wicked: 4–12

C. Personal Conflict and Temple Epiphany (Rungs 1–3a): 13–17

1. Physical Pain (Ground Level): 13–14

2. Intellectual-Spiritual Pain (Rung 1): 15–16

3. Entrance into the Temple and Epiphany (Rung 2): 17

II. Asaph’s Temple Epiphany: 18–26

A. Insight into the Destiny of the Wicked (Rung 3): 18–20

B. Insight into Self (Rungs 4–7): 21–26

1. Insight into Past as a Brute (Rung 4): 21–22

2. Insight into God’s Present Grip (Rung 5): 23

3. Insight into Guidance and Future Glory (Rung 6): 24

4. Insight into God as All Sufficient and Eternal Possession (Rung 7): 25–26

III. Conclusion: 27–28

A. Certain Destruction of the Wicked: 27

B. Commitment to God’s Care and Control: 28

“A psalm by Asaph.”

Asaph secures Israel’s faith in a good God by examining that faith in light of the problem of theodicy: the prosperity of the wicked and the poverty of the righteous within the rule of a good God. First, he reconstructs the ladder by which he climbed down nearly to apostasy and ruin. Then he constructs a seven-rung salvific ladder by which he climbs up to the highest level of intimacy with God attained in the Old Testament.²⁹⁹ The salvific ladder’s crucial third rung, a temple epiphany of the destiny of the wicked, replaces sight with insight and turns doubt into certainty. On the seventh and final rung, Asaph abandons finding his “good” on earth to fully committing his whole life to God as his sole and sufficient possession who cares for him that he may recite his praises (73:28).³⁰⁰ This is the psalm’s message, and verse 28 is the key verse.

The exclamation ’ak (“truly”) introduces the three major divisions of the psalm: the theodicy (73:1), Asaph’s personal conflict (73:13, omitted in ESV), and his epiphany (73:18).

Confession of Insight: God Is Good to True Israel: 1

The inclusio “good” around the whole psalm (73:1, 28) shows that “truly God (see Ps 42: superscript) is good to Israel”—more precisely “to those who are pure (i.e., free from moral impurity) in heart” (see 7:10; cf. Matt 5:8)—a conclusion to which the resolution of his doubt had brought him, not a point de depart.

Confession of Sight: The Wicked Prosper: 2–12

Crisis of Faith: 2–3

The logical sequence of descending the ladder of doubt ladder begins with the third step. “But as for me, my feet (or ankle) had almost stumbled” (lit. “was turned”) from continuing on the path of faith and moral purity. Had he taken that fatal, third step, Asaph would have suffered the ruin of all turn-coats (73:27b). “For” introduces the second rung leading downward to apostasy: “I was envious (i.e., had a passionate desire for the possessions of) the arrogant” (see 5:6; 37:1; 75:5). Perplexity is normative in the life of faith (2Cor 4:8) but not idolatry and/or coveting. The logical first rung leading to apostasy was a flawed epistemology: “when I saw the prosperity (Hebrew shalom, see 6:3) of the wicked” (see 1:1; cf. Job 21:9). An epistemology based solely on one’s senses is like evaluating a house by looking only through its key-hole. Severely restricted in time and space, no human being can see how it all hangs together (see Prov 30:1–6).

Prosperity of the Wicked: 4–12

First, they are free of pain (73:4–5). With no holds barred, Asaph vents his bitterness at the apparent lack of justice. “For when their death comes,³⁰¹ it is painless (NIV; lit. “without fetters,” such as loss of faculties [see Eccl 12:1–6]); their bodies (lit. “bellies”) are healthy” (CJB). In the 7^th century BC Nerab monument, a deceased priest boasts of his good health at death (cf. Job 21:13, 23).³⁰²

Second, they are proud and violent (73:6–7). “Therefore,” unchecked by evil consequences, they give free expression to their depravity. “Pride (see 10:2) is their necklace”; they wear it to attract attention and admiration. “Violence covers them as a garment. From their callous hearts comes iniquity . . .” (NIV³⁰³).

Third, with their evil speech they rule the earth (73:8–9). “They scoff . . . with arrogance” (lit. “from on high/heaven” [56:2]). “Their mouths lay claim to heaven (lit. “set their mouths against heaven”), and their tongues take possession (lit. “tongues walk about rapidly”) of the earth” (NIV). The merism of “heaven and earth” signifies their fearlessness toward God and their fearful dominion toward mankind.

Fourth, they have no fear of God (73:10–11). The text and meaning of verse 10 are uncertain. “And they (the wicked and/or apostates) ask, ‘How can God know (what we do)? Does the Most High (7:17) really have knowledge?’” (CJB). They are deists, who deny God’s relevance, not his existence.

Asaph summarizes their prosperity (73:12). “Take a good look (NET). This is what the wicked are like . . . they increase in riches” by which they prove to themselves their competence.

Personal Conflict and Temple Epiphany (Rungs 1–3a): 13–17

Physical Pain (Ground Level): 13–14

Asaph starts his upward climb from the ground level of his affliction. “Truly (PST) in vain (i.e., without profit) I . . . and [have] washed my hands in innocence,” a metaphor of the Levitical purification rite (cf. 40:30–32) to signify the judicial verdict of his moral purity. Instead of God rewarding his virtue with good, he feels afflicted 24/7. “All the day long (without relief) I have been afflicted, and every morning (i.e., without delay or exception) brings new punishments” (NIV; lit. “called to account for wrong doing”; cf. Job 7:17ff).

Intellectual-Spiritual Pain (Rung 1): 15–16

The first rung of Asaph’s salvific ladder is his being conflicted, unlike the arrogant oppressors. He cannot testify against God. “If I had said, ‘I will speak thus,’” before overcoming bitter doubts, “I would have betrayed the generation of your children” (cf. Exod 4:22; Deut 14:1). His crisis of faith is both intellectual and emotional. “When I tried to understand all this (i.e., to favorably evaluate God’s justice), it was too painful to me” (KJV).

Entrance into the Temple and Epiphany (Rung 2): 17

Asaph now climbs up to the second rung: “until I went into the sanctuary (Exod 25:8) of God.” Instead of walking away from God he seeks to meet him, whereupon God lifts him to the third rung: “then I discerned their end,” which is specified in verse 18. His epiphany comes from experiencing holistically the place of God’s special manifestation. Overwhelmed, he experiences a Reality of power and glory that transcends his senses (see 63:2).

Insight into the Destiny of the Wicked (Rung 3): 18–20

In that new spiritual state, he sees the final end of the ungodly: “Truly you set them in slippery places.” The amoral nexus between their oppression and their shalom at death, which almost caused Asaph to lose his faith, he now realizes, God uses to deceive the wicked to bring about their sudden death and terrible overthrow. “You make them fall to ruin (i.e., to be desolate, cut off from life). How suddenly (cf. Luke 12:20; 1Thes 5:2ff) they are they destroyed” (NIV; cf. Heb 6:2; 9:27; 10:27) . . .! The damned “are like a dream,” the unreality of which becomes apparent, “when one awake”s (cf. Job 20:8; Isa 29:7). “O Lord of All” (see 16:2). “When you rouse yourself” from not exacting justice, “you despise them as phantoms,” since they are despicable and have no enduring substance.

Insight into Self (Rungs 4–7): 21–26

Insight into Past as a Brute (Rung 4): 21–22

On the fourth rung Asaph confesses and renounces his downward steps toward apostasy (cf. Prov 28:13): “I had a sour attitude and felt stung by pained emotions” (CJB). His envy to gratify his sensual drives and appetites had reduced him to the intellectual-spiritual status of an animal: “I was a like a beast toward you.”

Insight into God’s Present Grip (Rung 5): 23

Upon further reflection, on the fifth rung, he realizes that God’s grace had kept him from slipping into apostasy, inferring that God is always with him and will never fail him. “Nevertheless, I am continually with you; you hold my right hand,” a symbol of strength (cf. Isa 41:10, 13; Jer 31:32). Whom God foreknows he predestines to be glorified (Rom 8:29–30).

Insight into Guidance and Future Glory (Rung 6): 24

God’s grip that kept him from apostasy entails that “you guide (i.e., “lead as a shepherd” [see 5:9]) with your counsel,” enabling his stepping up to the sixth rung: “and afterward you will take me to glory” (NIV). “Take” could refer to a divine intervention as in the case of Enoch (see 49:15; Gen 5:24), but its parallel “guide/lead” suggests it means “to lead to a destination” (Num 23:14, 27; Prov 24:11). “Afterward” refers to a future that outlasts death, similar to the destiny of the wicked that lies beyond death (73:18–20). That interpretation both fits the reference to “heaven” (73:25) and to “when . . . my flesh shall fail” (73:26); it is also consistent with wisdom theology.³⁰⁴ C. S. Lewis noted, “In the end that Face which is the delight or the terror of the universe must be turned upon each of us, either conferring glory inexpressible or inflicting shame that can never be cured or disguised.” By “inexpressible glory” he means “to shine as the sun . . . to be united with beauty . . . to become part of it.”³⁰⁵

Insight into God as All sufficient and Eternal Possession (Rung 7): 25–26

Asaph now steps up to the final and climatic rung: God is his all-sufficient possession forever. “Whom have I in heaven but you” anticipates the answer “no one,” entailing God is his sole possession, to which he adds, “and there is nothing on earth I desire besides you.” In sum, the God who grips him and whom he possesses is his all-sufficient “good.” This is the Satisfaction that humankind hungers for. “My flesh and my heart (of flesh) may fail, but God is the strength (lit. “rock”) of my heart and my portion forever.” God protects the believers’ spiritual heart even in death (Prov 14:32), and their all-sufficient Good endures forever.

Certain Destruction of the Wicked: 27

Asaph returns to the world of sight now armed with his new insights. “Those who are far from you (i.e., the proud oppressors) shall perish; you put an end to everyone who is unfaithful to you” (lit. “who adulterously leave you” [CJB]; i.e., apostates).

Commitment to God’s Care and Control: 28

“But for me, it is good to be near God.” Thus, the poem’s framing “good” is transformed from temporal prosperity to the benefit of an eternal relationship with the all-sufficient God. “I have made the Sovereign LORD my refuge. I will tell of all your deeds” (NIV; see “message” above).

The Levites compiled Book III, the dark book of the Psalter, in light of the destruction of the temple and the Babylonian exile.

The content and structure of this complaint psalm at a glance:

Superscript

I. Complaint: 1–11

A. Introductory Complaint and Petition: 1–2

B. Temple Destroyed: 3–8

1. Graphic Depiction of Destruction: 3–4

2. Graphic Description of Destroyers as Lumberjacks: 5–6

3. End of Worship: 7–8

C. Left without Prophets: 9–10

D. God Is Silent: 11

II. Hymn of Confidence: 12–17

A. Confession: “God Is My King”: 12

B. Praise of God as Creator of Israel and the Earth: 13–17

1. Creator of Israel: 13–15

2. Creator of the Earth: 16–17

III. Ten Petitions to Defend the Oppressed and to Punish God’s Foes: 18–22

Postscript: Psalm 75: superscript

“A Maskil of Asaph.”

David, king of Judah (1010–970 BC), appointed Asaph as the chief musician (1Chr 16:4–7). Hezekiah recognized him and David as the author of the psalms used when he revived the temple worship.

Psalm 74 opens with a complaint-lament by the righteous remnant over the total destruction of the temple by the Babylonians. Their depiction of the accompanying circumstances by these left-behind Judeans matches those mentioned in Lamentations 2:9: lawlessness abounds in the land (Ps 74:19–21), and they have no prophet to guide them (74:9–10).³⁰⁶ Could Asaph have put this poem into the mouths of these Judeans four centuries after he lived?

On the one hand, Asaph was both a poet and a seer (2Chr 29:30), and a spirit of judgment pervades his psalms. He could have been moved to compose this complaint during the spiritually darkening days of Solomon (970–931 BC) and even as late as the early reign of foolish Rehoboam (931–913 BC) and Shishak’s plundering of the temple ca. 925 BC (1Kgs 14:25). Moreover, Asaph knew and taught the song that Moses taught the people as a witness against them for the time when the LORD judged them for apostasy and that also gave them hope beyond the captivity (Deut 31:10–32:46); and he also knew the covenant curses that threatened the nation with captivity (28:41) and that blessings, not curses, would have the last word in Israel’s history. So Asaph the seer plausibly could have given voice to complaints, the confidence and petitions of the left-behind Judeans in 587/86 BC (2Chr 36:15–19), and after Jeremiah had been led away unwillingly to Egypt (Jer 43:4–7).

On the other hand, possibly “Asaph” in this and some other superscriptions, such as Psalms 75, 79, and 83, refers to his descendants, the senior family of musicians until the Restoration (1Chr 25:2; 2Chr 20:14; 35:13; Ezra 3:10; Neh 11:17, 22; 12:35).

The worship leader transforms his complaint-lament into confidence, confessing that God has displayed his sovereign power in creating Israel (74:13–15) and the earth (74:16–17). So he appeals to the Sovereign to end the enemy’s tyranny over Israel with several arguments, arguments that also bolster Israel’s faith.

1. God acquired Israel as his “sheep” (74:1–2, 13–15).
2. The enemies shamed God’s name by destroying his temple (74:3–8) and continue to insult him (74:10, 22).
3. They threaten the existence of God’s people (74:19).
4. The land is full of violence.
5. Israel will praise God’s name instead of being humiliated (74:21).

At the psalm’s center (74:12), preceded and followed by eleven verses, Israel confesses for the reasons stated: “God is my King.” This is the psalm’s message and key verse.

God answered their manifold petitions to remember and not forget—he sent his Son to save his people.

The nation’s complaint aims to enflame God’s anger against the enemies and to arouse him to save his people. An agitated, rhetorical “why” frames the complaint (74:1, 11). The time shifts from the present distress (74:1–2), to the past destruction of the temple (74:3–8), back to the present distress (74:9–11).

Introductory Complaint and Petition: 1–2

Verse 1 lays the prayer’s theological foundation: God is the Ultimate Cause of Israel’s misfortune; and so he must save Israel. The petition (74:2) echoes Moses’s “Song of the Sea” (Exod 15).

“O God (see Ps 42: superscript), why . . . cast us off forever?” “Forever” is a hyperbole. If Asaph believed that God permanently rejected Israel, he would not have prayed this psalm. “Your anger smokes” presumes God is punishing Israel. “Against the sheep of your pasture” (i.e., the Promised Land) likens God to a shepherd; a good shepherd cares for his flock. “Remember (i.e., to act because of a previous commitment) your congregation, which you purchased (cf. Exod 15:16) of old (see Ps 74:13–15) . . . the tribe”—an echo of the pre-monarchic period—”which you have redeemed (i.e., acted as the family protector by delivering them from slavery; Exod 15:13) . . . of your heritage (i.e., appropriated as a permanent possession): Remember Mount Zion (see 2:6), where you have dwelt” (Exod 15:17).

Temple Destroyed: 3–8

Graphic Description of Destruction: 3–4

Ross³⁰⁷ equates “lift up your steps” (literal translation mine) with “don’t drag your feet.” “To the perpetual ruins” is clarified as “the sanctuary,” sanctified by God’s presence as a place of purity and power. “Your foes have roared . . .” the image of a lion connotes their terrifying savagery (see 74:4). “. . . they set up their standards,” which bore images of their gods, “as signs” (NIV) of their rule.

Graphic Description of Destroyers as Lumberjacks: 5–6

See 1 Kings 6:16–35 for the ornate paneling and artifacts of the temple.

End of Worship: 7–8

“They . . . burned all the meeting places,”³⁰⁸ perhaps a reference to places where the priests taught the people the Law, forerunners of post-exilic synagogues (cf. Lev 10:11; Deut 33:10; Jer 2:8; Mal 2:7). The adversaries aim to kill the God of Israel existentially.

Left Without Prophets: 9–10

God sometimes gave oracles in answer to prayers (cf. Josh 7:7; Judg 20:23; 27:28; 2Chr 20:17; 2Kgs 19:14ff, 20ff; Hab 1:5; 2:2), but “we are given no signs (see 86:17) from God” (NIV) as attestation of his presence. “There (is) no longer any prophet” who performed miracles (e.g., Isa 38:7–8) or told what was going to happen (e.g., Isa 41:21–24).

God Is Silent: 11

The nation vents its vexation at God’s delay to meet their urgent need. “How long, O God . . .?” “Why do you hold back . . . your hand?” symbolic of activity and strength (cf. Exod 15:12).

Confession: “God Is My King”: 12

“My (i.e., Asaph as worship leader represents the faithful congregation) King (see 2:6) from long ago (see 74:1, 13–15), working salvation (see 3:7) in the midst of the earth” features the king as warrior.

Praise of God as Creator of Israel and the Earth: 13–17

An emphatic “you” occurs seven times at the beginning of the strophe’s versets (74:13a, 14a, 15a, b, 16b, 17a, c). The singer’s praise of God is as passionate as his lament (cf. Jas 5:16).

Creator of Israel: 13–15

God formed Israel during the time from the parting of the Red Sea (74:13–14) to the drying up of the Jordan (74:15).

“It was you who split open the sea” (NIV)—an allusion to myths of a creator deity breaking open an anti-creator deity to release the essential forces of life, a metaphor that signifies the birth of Israel. “You broke . . . the heads of the sea-monsters” (or “sea-monster”), an allusion to the myth, “You smote Leviathan the slippery serpent . . . the tyrant with seven heads,” a metaphor for the destruction of Egypt, also called Rahab (“Sea Monster”; cf. Exod 14:5–31; Ps 89:10; Isa 51:9–10; Ezek 29:3). “And gave it as food to the creatures (Hebrew ‘ām, “people,” used of animals [cf. Prov 30:25, 26; Joel 2:2]) of the wilderness” may allude to the bodies of the dead Egyptians washed up on the shore of Red Sea and devoured by animals (Exod 14:30).

“You split open up springs” in the wilderness (cf. Exod 15:22–27; 17:1–7; Num 20:8–11). “You dried up the ever-flowing streams” (better, “rivers”), a metonymy for the Jordan and its streams (Josh 3–4; 7:24ff).

Creator of the Earth: 16–17

Because Israel’s suffering seems unending (cf. 74:3a, 9b, 10a, 19b, 23b), the poet features God as creator of time, and so its owner and lord. “Both day and night belong to you; you made the starlight and the sun” (NLT), an allusion to Genesis 1:3–5. The merism denotes the temporal reality of all time; and “day” may connote what is good, and “night” may signify what is bad. This is also true of the merism of seasons: “You have fixed all the boundaries of the earth . . . winter”: its seasons, mountains, rivers, and appointment of nations (cf. Deut 32:8).

“Remember” and “do not forget” frame the tenfold petitions, moving from the past (74:18) to the present and future (74:22).

First (74:18), “remember (see 9:11) . . . how the enemy scoffs” (see 74:10a). “LORD” identifies the “name.” “How a foolish people (i.e., sacrilegious outcasts) reviles your name” (see 74:3a, 10b).

Second (74:19a), “do not deliver the soul of your” weak and defenseless “dove (i.e., Israel) . . . to wild beasts” (see 74:4).

Third (74:19b), “do not forget (see 9:17) the life of the poor (see 9:18) forever.”

Fourth (74:20), “have regard for the covenant” refers to God’s covenant with Abraham (Gen 22:16–18) and with the nation regarding the Promised Land (Exod 19:5–66; 23:27–31; 24:3–8; 34:9–11; Lev 26:11–12, 42, 45; Deut 26:16–19; 28:1–14; Pss 105:8–11; 106:45). This is needed, “for the dark places of the land,” which are without the light of the Law (see Lam 2:9), “are full of habitations (lit. “pastures”) of violence.” The metaphor “pastures” is ironic, for that term connotes places of provision and peace (see 23:2).

Fifth (74:21a), “let not the downtrodden turn back (or “retreat”) in shame” (cf. 6:10), signifies God’s protection.

Sixth (74:21b), “let the poor and needy (see 35:10) praise (22:23) your name” (see 5:11).

Seventh (74:22aα), “arise” (see 44:25).

Eighth (74:22aβ), “defend your cause” (rîbâ rîb; see Ps 35: superscript).

Ninth (74:22b), “remember . . . all day long” reprises verse 18.

Tenth (74:22), “do not forget (see 74:19b) . . . continually.”

“For the choirmaster.”

The content and structure of this hymn at a glance:

Superscript

I. First Cycle: 1–8

A. Congregation Praises God: 1

B. Reason: God Judges with Equity: 2–8

1. God Speaks: 2–5

a. Sovereign over Time Judges with Equity: 2–3

b. Warning: Wicked Not to Lift Up Their Horns: 4–5

2. Asaph Responds: 6–8

a. The Sovereign over Space Judges by Humbling and Exalting: 6–7

b. Judicial Sentence: Wicked Handed God’s Cup of Fury: 8

II. Second Cycle: 9–10

A. Asaph Praises God: 9

B. Reason: God Humbles the Wicked and Exalts the Righteous: 10

Postscript: Psalm 76: superscript

“To the choirmaster . . . Do Not Destroy.” (see Pss 57, 58, 59). Postscript of Psalm 74.

“A psalm of Asaph (see Ps 74: superscript). A Song.”

This hymn that celebrates God’s justice functions editorially as God’s response to Asaph’s ten-fold petition for justice in 74:18–23. Though a hymn, the prophetic spirit of justice pervades Asaph the seer’s psalm.

By structuring his hymn into the pattern of alternating structure, the poet creatively repeats his message (esp. 75:2, 7, 10, the key verse): God is just, guaranteeing that at his appointed time he humbles the wicked and exalts the righteous. By placing in the last cycle comprehensive “all” (75:10; cf. 75:8) in space and “forever” (75:9) in time, the poet gives this message an eschatological dimension.

Christ advances the message to humbling oneself to be exalted (Matt 23:12; Phil 2:9).

Congregation Praises God: 1

“We give grateful praise to you (translation mine), O God (see Ps 42: superscript). Your name (see 5:11; cf. 74:7) is near” and so comes quickly to the rescue (cf. 10:1; Deut 4:7). “We recount your wondrous deeds” (9:2; 74:13–17).

Reason: God Judges with Equity: 2–8

God Speaks: 2–5

Sovereign over Time Judges with Equity: 2–3

“I choose the appointed time (see 1:5); it is I who judges (punishes oppressor and delivers the oppressed) with equity” (NIV), as illustrated by the created order: “when the earth totters (lit. melts), and all its inhabitants quake (totter), it is I who adjusts³⁰⁹ its pillars” (translation mine). “Pillars” figuratively refers to mountains (see 65:6ff). The readjusting of the earth after an earthquake functions as a metaphor, signifying that after the wicked disturb the moral and social order, God prevents it from descending into chaos through his executing justice. “Selah.”

Warning: Wicked Not to Lift Up Their Horns: 4–5

“I say to the boastful” (see 5:6) matches its parallel, “to the wicked” (see 1:1), and “boast no more” (NIV) matches the figure, “do not lift up your horns.” The male animal’s horns give it a regal appearance and symbolize “assertive power.”³¹⁰ “Lift up” signifies to boast of victory by one’s own strength (cf. 112:9; Lam 2:17). “Self-assertion”³¹¹ defies God, perhaps the reason he adds “on high” (or “against heaven” [NIV, CSB, NAB]; “in defiance of heaven” [NLT]; cf. 1Sam 2:3).

Asaph Responds: 6–8

Asaph responds to the reassuring word from heaven.

The Sovereign over Space Judges by Humbling and Exalting: 6–7

“For victory (lit. “lifting up”) does not come from the east or west, or from the wilderness. For God is the judge! (NET), putting . . . another” (cf. 1Sam 2:3; 2Sam 22:28; Dan 4; Job 40:6–41:34; Luke 1:46–55).

Judicial Sentence: Wicked Handed God’s Cup of Fury: 8

“For in the hand of the LORD” signifies the wicked have no choice. Figuratively, “a cup with foaming wine” symbolizes judgement (Jer 25:15ff, 27; 49:12). “Well mixed” with spices and/or honey prevents wine from fermenting; so the figure signifies that God preserves judgment for the right time. “All . . . shall drain it to the dregs” (cf. Ezek 23:34) signifies that none of the wicked escape God’s death sentence.

Asaph Praises God: 9

“But I (Asaph) will declare it (i.e., what God says in 75:10) forever. I will sing praises” commonly occurs in introductions. God has the last word.

Reason: God Humbles the Wicked and Exalts the Righteous: 10

The reason is given in a direct address from God: “All the horns (see 75:5) . . . but . . . lifted up,” putting an exclamation point on the message.

“To the choirmaster: with stringed instruments.”

The content and structure of this song of grateful praise at a glance:

Superscript

I. God’s Majesty Praised in Israel: 1–6

A. God is Praised in Israel and Narrative of Deliverance: 1–3

1. God’s Praised in Zion: 1

2. Narrative: Enemy’s Weapons Broken in Zion: 2–3

Selah

B. Praise of God’s Majesty and Further Reflection on Deliverance: 4–6

1. Praise of God’s Majesty: 4

2. Reflection on Narrative: Enemies’ Bodies Lie Silent in Death: 5–6

II. God Feared by All the Earth: 7–12

A. Praise of God’s Anger and Justice: 7–9

1. God Alone to Be Feared: 7

2. Narrative: Earth Feared When God Executed Justice: 8–9

Selah

B. God’s Wrath Brings Him Universal Praise: 10–12

1. God’s Wrath Brings Him Praise: 10

2. Worshipers to Bring Him Tribute: 11

3. Kings of the Earth Will Fear the LORD: 12

Postscript: Psalm 77: superscript

“To the choirmaster: with stringed instruments.” Postscript of Psalm 75.

“A Psalm of Asaph (see Ps 74: superscript). A Song.”

In this song of grateful praise, Asaph, as a seer (2Chr 29:30), or possibly a descendent of his, envisions a situation similar to God’s defeat of the Assyrian army at Zion in 701 BC (2Kgs 19:35; see Pss 46, 48).

Each of the psalm’s two stanzas of equal length (76:1–6, 7–12) has two strophes of equal length, divided by Selah (76:1–3, 4–6 and 7–9, 10–12). “In Judah God . . .” and “God of Jacob” frame the first stanza (76:1, 6), and “you are/who is to be feared” frames the second (76:7, 12).

The first stanza looks back to a great deliverance (76:1–6), and the second looks ahead to a greater judgment (76:7–12). The former is local: God is in Zion, and he defends it from well-armed attackers; the latter is cosmic: God is in heaven, and he establishes universal justice.³¹² “All” in 76:9, 11, as in 75:10, gives the psalm an eschatological dimension.

The stanzas are unified by praising God directly in the inner strophes (76:4–6, 7–10), each highlighted by an initial and emphatic “you” (76:4, 7). The outer strophes, apart from verse 10, praise God indirectly, shifting from his being renowned in Israel (76:1–3) to his being worshiped universally (76:11–12).

Verse 10 is a janus, linked with verses 7–9 by direct address (“you”) and the catch terms “anger” and “wrath,” but separated from them by “selah,” which links it with verses 11–12 along with the notion of universal praise. Verse 10, the key verse, combines two dominant themes of the psalm: God’s wrath and his praise; and so its message: “God’s wrath against mankind brings him praise” (NIV).

The first stanza contains the typical motifs of a song of grateful praise, to wit, proclamation of praise and narrative of deliverance (see Introduction, Proclamation: I Will Praise the LORD HYPERLINK); however, by putting praise (76:4) ahead of further reflection on narrative (76:5–6), the poet creates these motifs in two cycles (76:5–6).

God Is Praised in Israel and Narrative of Deliverance: 1–3

God Is Praised in Zion: 1

“God (see Ps 42: superscript) is renowned” (or “makes himself known”). . .

Narrative: Enemy’s Weapons Broken in Zion: 2–3 (Selah)

“It happened this way: his lair (see 76:6; cf. 10:9) was in Salem (Jerusalem [Gen 14:8]), his den (see Ps 104:22) was in Zion (translation mine).” “There (emphatic) . . . arrows, the shield . . .” The panoply of broken weapons gives silent witness to total defeat.

Praise of God’s Majesty and Further Reflection on Narrative: 4–6

Praise of God’s Majesty: 4

“You are resplendent; majestic (see 8:1) as you return from the mountains (cf. Isa 14:25; translation mine) where you killed your prey” (NET).

Reflection on Narrative: Enemies’ Bodies Lie Silent in Death: 5–6

“The brave-hearted were plundered; they ‘fell asleep (or “grew drowsy in sleep”).’ All the warriors were helpless (lit. “warriors did not find their hands”). At the sound of your battle cry (see 9:5), O God of Jacob, both rider and horse ‘fell asleep’” (NET).

The motifs of the song of grateful praise are repeated in the second stanza: proclamation of praise (76:7) and narrative of deliverance (76:8–9), but atypically the psalm ends with a promise of praise in the form of paying tribute for future deliverance.

Praise of God’s Anger and Justice: 7–9

God Alone to Be Feared: 7

“But you . . .” (see 33:8; cf. 27:1). The rhetorical question “who can stand” (cf. Rev 6:12–17) signifies Israel’s divine Warrior is uniquely invincible.

Narrative: Earth Feared When God Executed Justice: 8–9 (Selah)

“From the heavens . . . the earth feared . . . when God saved all the humble (‘āniy plural; see 9:18) of the earth. Selah.” The past tense, as often in prophecy, is a prolepsis, to represent the future judgment as certain.

God’s Wrath Brings Him Universal Praise: 10–12

God’s Wrath Brings Him Praise: 10

“Surely [your] wrath (from a sense of being wronged) against (lit. “of”) mankind brings you praise. You bind the last bit of your wrath around you” (NRS), which NET helpfully paraphrases, “you reveal your anger in full measure.”

Worshipers to Bring Him Tribute: 11

“Make your vows . . . and perform them” entails future answers to prayer. “To the LORD your (plural) God” identifies the addressees as the temple worshipers. “Let all around him (i.e., the temple worshipers) bring gifts” (see 68:30) entails God rewarded them with wealth.

Kings of the Earth Will Fear the LORD: 12

“Who cuts off (better, “will cut off”) the spirit (pride and fury) of princes . . . kings of the earth.”

“To the choirmaster: according to Jeduthun.”

The content and structure of this didactic, reflective psalm at a glance:

Superscript

I. Problem: A Changing God: 1–10

A. Perseverance in Prayer: 1–2

B. Troubling Memory of God in Former Days: 3–5

C. Skepticism of God’s Unfailing Love: 6–9

1. Remembered Temple Songs and Spirit Enquires: 6

2. Skepticism of God’s Unfailing Love: 7–9

D. The Wound: God Has Changed: 10

II. Resolution: God’s Saving Deeds Remembered: 11–20

A. Resolve to Remember God’s Saving Acts: 11–12

B. Praise of God’s Saving Deeds: 13–15

C. A Victory Song of the Sea: 16–19

D. God Led Israel through the Wilderness: 20

“To the choirmaster: according to Jeduthun.” Postscript of Psalm 76.

“Of Asaph. A Psalm” (see Ps 74: superscript).

This psalm by Asaph resembles his Psalm 73. Both initially affirm faith in God, then call that faith into question, and finally resolve doubt and despair. This reflective psalm’s key words are the related terms “remember,” “consider,” and “meditate” (77:3 [2x], 5, 6 [2x], 11 [2x], 12 [2x]). The first half (77:1–10) contrasts the memory of God’s former power and benevolent attributes with the present reality of unrelieved affliction. Asaph does not doubt God’s existence or Israel’s memory. Rather, what wounds him is the difference between the evidence of God’s power and beneficence in the past and their absence in his own experience. He painfully apperceives from this contrast that God has changed. The second half, of almost equal length (77:11–21), transforms this despair to praise by his resolve to remember God’s miraculous saving act of the Exodus. Verse 11 is the key verse. Neither God nor Asaph’s situation has changed; rather—and this is the psalm’s message—Asaph has changed. Instead of obsessing on his affliction and unanswered prayer, he overcame doubt and skepticism by a resolve, as he tossed and turned on his bed, to remember God’s miraculous saving act of the Exodus. Indeed, the Exodus was only a dress rehearsal of God raising his Son from the dead to eternal glory.

Perseverance in Prayer: 1–2

Verses 1–2 set the stage.

“I cry (volitional) aloud to God” in my distress, “aloud to God (see Ps 42: superscript), that he may hear me” (NRSV). “Aloud” (lit. “my voice”) is clause-initial and repeated to signify urgency (cf. Heb 5:7). “In day of my trouble I sought³¹³ (see 9:10) the Lord of All” (translation mine³¹⁴). “In the night . . . wearying” indicates that he has been petitioning God constantly for some time. “And my soul (better, “I” [see 6:4]) refused to be comforted” indicates his unwillingness to accept his unanswered prayer as an unchangeable fact (cf. Gen 24:67; 37:35; Ezek 32:31).

Troubling Memory of God in Former Days: 3–5

Typically, in complaint psalms the motif of confidence follows the introductory cry for help. In fact, God commands his people to remember their history (105:5) and accuses them when they do not (106:7). And so, Asaph calls on his memory to sustain his faith (see 22:27; 63:6; 78:35, 42, 143:5). But his memory turns his outer unstated crisis of distress into a greater inner crisis of faith because his cry is unheard. “When I remembered³¹⁵ God (see Ps 42: superscript) . . . Selah” may function to shift the perspective from talking about God to the congregation, to addressing God directly, explaining to him why he moaned and fainted. You, as the Sovereign, “held my eyelids open” by not answering, instead of allowing them to close in sweet peace (Prov 3:24). “I was so troubled I could not speak” a hyperbole equivalent to “I was in unspeakable distress.” He begins to explain his anguish: “I considered . . . long ago” (i.e., of the most remote past), a reference to the exodus from Egypt (cf. Isa 51:9).

Skepticism of God’s Unfailing Love: 6–9

Remembered Temple Songs and Spirit Enquires: 6

“During the night (NET) I remembered³¹⁶ my song” (lit. “stringed instrument,” a technical term for temple music with either songs of lament [see Ps 4: superscript] or songs of praise [see Ps 67: superscript]). Even songs of lament typically include the motif of praise. But instead of finding confidence and praise, his memory raised agonizing questions. “My heart meditated . . . Then my spirit made a diligent search” to understand his situation.

Skepticism of God’s Unfailing Love: 7–9

Asaph assumes as obvious that God’s promises and his former beneficences (cf. Exod 34:6)—”to be favorable” (77:7), to show “steadfast love (77:8), to be gracious” and full of “compassion” (77:9)—have failed. The question is, “Has his steadfast forever ceased . . .?” The “selah” may function to isolate the troubling conclusion (77:10).

The Wound: God Has Changed: 10

To Asaph, God’s benevolent attributes have failed. “So I said (“I conclude” [NAB]), ‘What wounds me is (NJB)³¹⁷ that the right hand,’ the symbol of active control and strength, ‘of the Most High has changed’”³¹⁸ (translation mine³¹⁹).

Resolve to Remember God’s Saving Acts: 11–12

For the man of Spirit-given faith, however, the conclusion God has changed and failed cannot be the last word. There is a better way to remember. “I will remember³²⁰ the deeds of the LORD” (Hebrew Yah). He repeats his resolve by redirecting his address to the LORD. Yes, I “will remember your wonders”—a metonymy for deeds so extraordinary that they amaze people.

Praise of God’s Saving Deeds: 13–15

Remembering the mighty acts of God leads the man of faith to praise. “Your way (see Exod 15:13–16), O God, is holy” (i.e., not common but numinously powerful and morally pure). Even in the divine sphere: “Who is a great god like our God (JPS; cf. Exod 15:11)?” The rhetorical question calls for the enthusiastic answer: “No one.” The question assumes the religious reality that people worship other gods; it does not teach the theology of polytheism. “You (emphatic in Hebrew) are the God who works wonders (see 77:12). With your (mighty) arm you redeemed (as the family protector) your people, the children of Jacob and Joseph.” Jacob reckoned Joseph as his firstborn (1Chr 5:1–3) and gave him the double portion of the firstborn by blessing both of his sons, Ephraim and Manasseh, and he blessed both before blessing his other sons (Gen 48:1–49:1). And so “Joseph” here represents the whole nation (80:1; 81:5). “Selah” may function as an interlude between Asaph’s reflections and his victory song, matching Moses’s Song of the Sea (Exod 15).

A Victory Song of the Sea: 16–19

The content and consistent beat of the tri-cola (i.e., three versets), which resembles the Canaanite myths, mark out verses 16–20 as an ancient victory song. The song reinterprets the historical event of the wind that God blew and parted the Red Sea (Exod 14) as a Theomachy: a primordial battle between a creator god and his opponent, the sea-god, the hostile anti-creator. God is represented as riding a storm cloud, shooting arrows from his thundering war chariot against the terrified “Waters.” “The³²¹ waters saw you, God, the waters saw you, they were afraid; indeed, the deep (t^ehôm), an allusion to t^ehôm (“the primordial deep” in Gen 1:2) trembled.” Our poet also employs the hyperbole of ancient war annals. “The clouds poured out water . . . the earth trembled and shook.” The representation of God as a charioteer now morphs into that of a warrior striding triumphantly through the opposing sea. “Your way was through the sea, your path through the great waters, yet your footprints were unseen” (lit. “not made known”). The mythic imagery and the warfare hyperbole illuminate the symbolic significance of the Exodus as the triumph of God over cosmic evil.

God Led Israel through the Wilderness: 20

In verse 20, the poet returns to the normal bicolon and mentions historical figures. “You led your people like a flock by the hand of Moses and Aaron” (cf. Num 33:1). Asaph ends his poem in the time beyond the Exodus with God leading his flock safely through the dangerous Wilderness toward its goal, not with answered prayer. His open ending asks future generations of the afflicted flock to complete that history to its goal by persevering with him in faith.

The content and structure of this didactic psalm at a glance:

Superscript

I. Proem: 1–8

A. Summons to Hear “Parable”: 1–4

1. Summons to Hear: 1–2

2. The Parable: Recounted Praiseworthy Deeds of the LORD: 3–4

B. The Torah Commands to Recount God’s Wonders: 5–8

1. One Generation to Teach the Next: 5–6

2. To Foster Covenant Fidelity: 7–8

II. First Recital of God’s Mighty Deeds from Zoan to Shiloh: 9–39

A. Wonders in Egypt and Provisions in the Wilderness: 9–16

1. Introduction: Ephraim Forgot Wonders in Egypt: 9–11

2. Wonders in Egypt, at the Sea, in the Wilderness: 12–16

B. Provision of Food in the Wilderness: 17–31

1. Introduction: Ancestors Sin, Rebel, Test God and God’s Fury: 17–22

2. Rained Down Manna: 23–25

3. Rained Down Meat: 26–29

4. Coda: Greed and Death: 30–31

C. Cycles of Israel’s Sins and of God’s Mercy in the Time of Judges: 32–39

1. Repeated Sin and Futility: 32–33

2. Punishment and Repentance: 34–35

3. False Repentance: 36–37

4. Cycle of God’s Mercy: 38–39

III. Second Recital of God’s Mighty Deeds from Zoan to Shiloh: 40–64

A. Wonders in Egypt and Guidance to Holy Land: 40–55

1. Introduction.: Ancestors Rebel, Test God, and Forgot Wonders in Egypt: 40–42

2. Plagues on Egypt: 43–51

3. Guidance to the Holy Land: 52–55

B. Israel’s Apostasy and God’s Fury: 56–64

1. Introduction: Rebel, Test God in the Land: 56–59

2. God’s Abandons Shiloh Sanctuary and Slaughter of People: 60–64

IV. From Shiloh to Zion: 65–72

A. Delivered from Enemies: 65–66

B. Judah, Zion, and David Chosen: 67–72

“A Maskil (perhaps “instruction”) of Asaph” (see Ps 74: superscript).

Content

Asaph continues to speak as a sage and continues to reflect on Israel’s salvation history (see Ps 77). But now he uses God’s mighty deeds in Israel’s salvation history as a “parable” (māšāl): an exemplary story that teaches theological and ethical truth. He extrapolates “hidden things,” truths concealed within the story. Verses 1–2 strikingly resemble Psalm 49:1–4, Proverbs 1:8, 2:1, and passim.

Asaph also speaks as a prophet (2Chr 29:30), revealing the mind of God in heaven (e.g., Ps 78:21ff), unveiling the depths of the human heart (e.g., 78:37) and authoritatively interpreting Israel’s history (e.g., 78:9–11). He aims to nerve Israel to covenant fidelity (78:6–8), but he does so by telling God’s praiseworthy deeds, not by preaching, unlike Moses; or by proclaiming oracles of judgment and salvation, unlike Jeremiah. Nevertheless, our chief temple leader (1Chr 16:4–5) summons the congregated people “to hear,” and addresses them with passion (Ps 78:1–2). Paul also teaches the Church through Israel’s history (1Cor 10:6).

Asaph unveils the “hidden things” of the story in various ways: didactic statement (e.g., “God is merciful,” 78:38); explanation (e.g., the wonders are signs of God’s presence, 78:43); and rhetoric (e.g., he selects and arranges the deeds to imply truths).

Broadly speaking, Asaph arranges the deeds chronologically. Each of the two foremost recitals of the magnalia dei (“wondrous works of God,” 78:9–39, 40–64) begins chronologically with wonders in Egypt and ends with Israel’s sin in the Holy Land (78:34–39, 56–64). But within that chronological framework, he sometimes dischronologizes God’s deeds, because he aims to teach (78:1), not to recount them as accurately and objectively as possible.

In his first recital of God’s deeds during the time of Judges (78:32–39), he refers at the outset to the destruction of Shiloh (78:33), but he gives God’s mercy the last word (78:38–39); but in the second recounting (78:40–64), he gives the destruction of Shiloh the last word (78:60–64).

Finally, Asaph is a poet. His striking figures of speech add ardor to virtue and conviction to confession.

Structure

The repeated refrain “forgot/did not remember . . . wonders . . . in the region of Zoan” (78:11ff; 78:42ff) signals two recitals of God’s deeds from Zoan to Shiloh (78:9–39, 40–64). That refrain is a hinge that looks back to the parable’s purpose not to forget (78:7), and ahead to the wonders that follow in each section. The introductions precede the alternating chronological structure of God’s wonders in Egypt (78:13–31, 43–55) and of Israel’s sin in the Holy Land (78:32–39, 56–64).

Moreover, the motif of Israel’s sin, reinforced by the catchwords “rebel” and “put to the test,” introduce the major sub-divisions of the two recitals (78:17ff, 32ff; also 78:42ff, 56ff). Judith Gaertner calls them “hinge verses.”³²² By introducing God’s wonders of power after the motif of Israel’s willful sin (78:9–12, 17–18, 40–43, 56–57), Asaph implies that God harnesses his power (see 78:4) to his mercy.

In sum, the psalm consists of seven—the number symbolic of divine perfection—major units (78:1–8, 9–16, 17–31, 32–39, 40–55, 56–64, 65–72).

Repetition characterizes Hebrew poetry, where the second statement reinforces and/or escalates and expands the first. For example, the first introduction censoring Ephraim’s sin of forgetting God’s wonders (78:9–11) is escalated in the other introductions to the ancestors’ contemptuous disregard for those wonders and their willful unbelief and disobedience (78:17, 32, 40, 56). Moreover, the repetition of this motif and catchwords also shows that egregious sins characterize the ancestors; they are not an aberration (cf. Acts 7). Read linearly, the narrative confuses; read as alternating repetitions, it is heard stereophonically.

Message

Asaph teaches that Israel prevails by each generation remembering to praise God’s amazing deeds of saving power harnessed to his mercy. Human frailty (cf. 78:38–39), Israel’s sin and guilt, and God’s moral indignation and wrath are all encompassed within God’s sovereign mercy. Verse 4 is the key verse.

Canonical Context

God’s deeds rehearsed by Asaph are part of the Bible’s metanarrative of redemptive history centered in Christ.

The apostle Matthew notes that Jesus Christ brings to fulfillment (i.e., “its highest realization”³²³) teaching through “parables.” Christ’s brief and brilliantly imaginative stories contain “things hidden since the creation of the world” (Matt 13:35).

The trajectories of the motifs of Israel’s sin and of God’s anger find fulfillment in the crucifixion of Christ (cf. Acts 7:1–53) and in the destruction of Jerusalem (cf. Matt 24:1–21). They will find their consummation when the Man of Lawlessness is revealed at the end of the present dispensation (2Thes 2:1–10) and when Christ returns to punish persecutors of his body, the Church (2Thes 1:7–10).

The trajectories of the motifs of God’s wonders and mercy find their fulfillment in the resurrection of Jesus Christ; in the heavenly Jerusalem (Gal 4:26; Heb 12:22–26), and in the Jewish remnant within the Church (Rom 9–11). They will find their consummation in Christ’s Parousia, when Christ raptures his church (1Thes 4:14–18) and thereupon establishes his eschatological kingdom (1Cor 15:23, 51–52).

The metaphor of manna as “bread from heaven” to feed the ancestors (78:24) typifies Christ, the true bread of heaven to feed the world with eternal life (John 6:31). The humble origin of David in a “sheep pen” and then his elevation to become the shepherd king through his skillful care of nursing ewes typify the Jesus Messiah, who at his birth was laid in a manger for animals and is now elevated to be the eternal Great Shepherd through his laying down of his life for his sheep.

Asaph’s introduces his “parable” with a proem (78:1–8): preliminary remarks before the parable proper.

Summons to Hear “Parable”: 1–4

The catchword “mouth” unites the couplet (78:1–2), modified in verses 3–4. This rhetorical linking validates interpreting “teaching” and “words” (78:1), “parable” and “hidden things” (78:2), and “praiseworthy deeds” and “wonders” (78:4) as having the same referent, to wit, Asaph’s recounting of God’s praiseworthy deeds (78:9–72).

Summons to Hear: 1–2

“My people” refers to God’s covenant people in every dispensation, including Jews and Gentile alike who are baptized into Jesus Christ. Asaph teaches enthusiastically, “I will utter” (lit. “will gush forth” like an uncontrollable fountain).

The Parable: Recounted Praiseworthy Deeds of the LORD: 3–4

By shifting pronouns from “I will utter” to “our fathers have told us,” Asaph subtly lays upon his addressees their duty as parents to join him in recounting God’s praiseworthy deeds. “We will not hide them from their (i.e., the founding fathers’) children, but tell to the coming generation (i.e., contemporaries with the same characteristics; see 24:6) the glorious (or “praiseworthy”) deeds of the LORD . . . and the wonders (translated “miracles” in 78:11; cf. 9:2; 86:10) he has done.” God does not repeat his saving acts but calls upon all in each and every generation to tell them to the next generation.

The Torah Commands to Recount God’s Wonders: 5–8

One Generation to Teach the Next: 5–6

“He established a testimony (i.e., “a covenant stipulation”) in Jacob . . . children” (cf. Exod 10:2; 12:26–27; 13:8, 14; Deut 4:9; 6:20–21). There is no room for neutrality or passivity. Otherwise, how will future generations know and be saved (cf. Rom 10:14ff)? “The faith of the people of God is only one generation away from extinction.”³²⁴

To Foster Covenant Fidelity: 7–8

“So that.” Asaph does not doubt that God will make the teaching effective (Prov 22:6). “They (i.e., each succeeding generation) would put their confidence in God, and would not forget his mighty deeds and would keep his commandments” (NIV). Knowing God’s mighty deeds generates trust in him, and “trust and obey” are two sides of the same coin.

The rest of Asaph’s Maskil is a recital of God’s praiseworthy deeds (78:9–72).

Wonders in Egypt and Provisions in the Wilderness: 9–16

Introduction: Ephraim Forgot Wonders in Egypt: 9–11

Asaph begins res media with the sin and failure of Ephraim: “The Ephraimites, though armed with (lit. “shooters of”) bows, turned back on the day of battle.” When Ephraim, a strong and warlike tribe (cf. 60:7; 80:1–3; Gen 49:22–24), uncharacteristically turned back in battle is not stated, but probably Asaph has in mind when, in the generation before his, Ephraim shamefully fled from the ark of the covenant to their tents, allowing the Philistines to capture the ark and to sack Shiloh in their tribal territory (see 61; cf. 1Sam 4:10ff). Ephraim failed militarily because of their lack of spiritual fortitude, not their lack of armor. “They did not keep God’s covenant . . . they forgot his works (i.e., “what God had done”) . . . in the fields (or “region”) of Zoan,” an ancient city in the NE delta. From the example of Ephraim, Asaph documents, like a footnote in a dissertation, the necessity of recounting and remembering God’s wonders to generate spiritual fortitude (78:7–8).

Wonders in Egypt, at the Sea, in the Wilderness: 12–16

The abstract “wonders” (or “miracles”) are specified in the second recital as seven plagues inflicted on Egypt (78:43–51). Then “he split the sea” (NIV; cf. Exod 14:16). The hostile term “split” probably alludes to the battle myths of creation. In these theomachies a creator deity split open what Genesis 1:2 calls “the abyss.” If so, the allusion associates the powerful, redemptive Creator of Israel with the Creator of the universe (cf. Gen 1:9–10). “And . . . made the waters stand up like a dam” (NJB; cf. Exod 15:8).

Then came the wonders in the wilderness (78:14–16), beginning with the provision of his guidance (78:14). “He led them” (i.e., the ancestors, not just Ephraim) in a trackless wasteland “with a cloud by day, and with the light of fire all night long” (NET; cf. Exod 13:21), as the star led the magi to the Christ-child (Matt 2:1–10). The benevolent God did not leave them to cope on their own after he redeemed them. He provided them with water from below and above (78:15–16). From below, “he split rocks in the wilderness (cf. Exod 17:6; Num 20:8) and gave them drink abundantly, as from the deep” (or “ocean depths”). From above, “he brought streams . . . flow down like rivers” (cf. Exod 15:8).

Provision of Food in the Wilderness: 17–31

Introduction: Ancestors Sin, Rebel, Test God, and God’s Fury: 17–22

Our prophet introduces this “miracle” story of food with an accusation (78:17–18). The repeated sins of the ancestors’ recounted here are dischronologized; they occurred in the wilderness, before the tribe of Ephraim’s sin (78:9). Ephraim, the leading tribe in military power and in whose territory God had located his sanctuary, embodies Israel’s unbelief and contemptuous disregard for the ark, and so was rejected by God in favor of the tribe of Judah (78:67–68). “Yet they (i.e., the ancestors) kept on sinning against him (NLT), rebelling against the Most High”—an epithet for God as the exalted ruler of the universe who vindicates the innocent and judges the wicked (see 7:1)—”in the desert.” The inclusio that they refused to trust God for water in both the first year after the exodus (Exod 17:1–7) and in the fortieth year after the exodus (Num 20:1–13) frames the detestable, founding generation. “They willfully (lit. “in their heart”) put God to the test (NIV; Ps 95:9; Exod 17:2, 7; Num 14:24) by demanding the food they craved” (Exod 16:3; Num 11:4, 6). That is to say, they wanted God to prove that he was with them and worthy of their trust. The Law forbids this (Deut 6:16; 9:22; 33:8; cf. Matt 16:4; 1Cor 1:22; 10:9). “God knows the difference between struggling faith and contemptuous unbelief (no faith).”³²⁵

Their own words condemn them (78:19–20); they knew God had given them abundant water. “They spoke against God, saying, ‘Can God . . . his people?’”

“Therefore, when the LORD heard [their complaining], he was furious. A fire broke out against Jacob (NET) at the outskirts of the camp (Num 11:1). Yes, his anger rose against Israel (NLT; see 78:59, 62; cf. Num 11:1; Deut 3:26), because they did not believe in God (i.e., did not count on God as reliable) . . . saving power” (Num 14:11).

Rained Down Manna: 23–25

“Yet” (Hebrew “and then”) he fed them and did not punish them but showed his glory in his mercy, as in the Golden Calf incident (Exod 34:6). “He commanded . . . doors of heaven,” symbolic of its divine origin, and a type of Christ (see above). “And he rained down on them manna (Hebrew “what is it [which is unlike anything on earth]?”) . . . heaven” (Exod 16:4, 14–15; John 6:31). Manna is in the shape of a seed of grain (cf. also Exod 16:31; Num 11:8). “Man (or “each one”) did eat the bread of the mighty (JPS; a metonymy for warriors or more probably for angels [so LXX] according to the heavenly context); he sent them all the food they could eat” (NIV).

Rained Down Meat: 26–29

“He let loose the east wind from the heavens (NIV) . . . He rained meat on them like (i.e., as thick as) dust; winged birds like (i.e., as plentiful as) sand of the seas . . . craved” (see 78:25; cf. Num 11:31–32).

Paradoxically, the water burst from the ground, and the food rained down from the sky.

Coda: Greed and Death: 30–31

“They did not turn aside (lit. “were not estranged”; i.e., “wanted more”) from what they craved” (NIV). Though gorged (78:29), they craved more. “While the food was still in their mouths” (cf. Num 11:33). Hossfeld translates: “Their greediness did not abate, even when the food was still in their mouths.”³²⁶ “The anger of God . . . young men of Israel.” Therefore, the place was named “Graves of Craving” (Num 11:34). God is long-suffering, but not forever (2Pet 3:9, 10).

Cycles of Israel’s Sin and of God’s Mercy in the Time of the Judges: 32–39

The cycle of sin, judgment, false repentance, and of God’s mercy mirrors the pattern of the warlords as recounted in the Book of Judges (Judg 2:11–19). In his first recital of the God’s responses to Israel’s sin, Asaph gives God’s mercy the last word.

Cycles of Israel’s Sin, Punishment, False Repentance: 32–37

Repeated Sin and Futility: 32–33

“In spite of all this, they kept on sinning (NIV); despite his wonders they did not believe” (cf. Num 14:11). After this introduction, Asaph puts up front the tragic end of the time of the Judges. “So he ended their days in futility (lit. “in a breath”; i.e., fruitless, without profit; “to die unsatisfied” [NET]) and their years in terror.” The parallel in the second recital makes clear that “futility” and “terror” are metonymies for the tragedy that ended Shiloh as the center of worship (see 78:61–64).

Punishment and Repentance: 34–35

“When (i.e., whenever) he killed them, they sought him to save them . . . their redeemer” (i.e., family protector and deliverer; cf. Judg 2:14–15).

False Repentance: 36–37

“But they . . . lied to him (or “played false”) with their tongues. Their hearts were not steadfast toward him (i.e., “not firmly with him”), they were not faithful (i.e., loyally attached) to his covenant” (cf. Judg 2:16–19). A person’s pattern of sin, not a sinful act, after a confession of repentance proves the sincerity or insincerity of their confession (cf. Jer 3:11; Hos 6:4).

Cycle of God’s Mercy: 38–39

“Yet he, being compassionate (cf. Exod 34:6) atoned for (i.e., “forgave”) their iniquity (‘awôn; 25:11) . . . wrath (Exod 34:6).³²⁷ He remembered that they were but flesh, a wind that blows past (or “by”) and does not return” (CJB; cf. Judg 2:18). Surprisingly, his mercy is predicated on the order of creation (cf. Gen 6:3; 2Sam 14:14; Ps 103:13–15), not on the order of redemption as in 106:45.

Wonders in Egypt and Guidance to the Holy Land: 40–55

Introduction: Ancestors Rebel, Test God, and Forgot Wonders in Egypt: 40–45

“How often . . . provoked (or “vexed” [a unique Hebrew word]) the Holy One of Israel. They did not remember his power (lit. “his hand”) or (not in Hebrew text) the day he redeemed (i.e., delivered/freed) them from the foe (i.e., the political and military enemy), when he performed his signs (i.e., “pledges or attestations of the divine presence and interposition”³²⁸) in Egypt, his marvels (Exod 7:3) in the fields of Zoan” (see 78:12).

Plagues on Egypt: 43–51

The sequence of the seven plagues—the number symbolic of divine perfection—in Psalm 78 notoriously differs from sequence of ten plagues—the number of complete fullness—in the Book of Exodus:

1. Waters turn to blood (Exod 7:14–25)
2. Frogs (7:26–8:15)
3. Lice (8:16–19)
4. Insects (8:20–28)
5. Plague (probably bubonic; 9:1–7)
6. Boils (9:8–12)
7. Hail with lightning (9:13–35)
8. Locusts (10:1–20)
9. Darkness (10:21–29)
10. Slaying of firstborn (11:1–8; 12:29–30)

The sequence of the seven plagues in Psalm 78 are:

1. turned their rivers ( = “streams” in Exod 8:5) to blood . . . their streams (78:44)
2. sent among them swarms of flies (78:45a; or “horse-flies”; see 105:31), whose females bite animals and humans to obtain blood)
3. frogs (78:45b)
4. gave the crops to the destroying locusts (“in a certain stage in their life cycle”³²⁹) and the fruit of their labor to swarms of migratory locusts (78:46; “in fully developed winged stage”³³⁰)
5. their vines (cf. Gen 40:9–11) with hail . . . gave over their cattle to hail . . . to bolts of lightning (78:47–48)
6. let loose on them his burning (cf. Exod 15:17) . . . a company of destroying angels (or “messengers who bring disaster”; see 91:6–7; cf. Exod 12:23; 2Kgs 18:35). He made (better, “cleared”) a path for his anger (i.e., gave his anger free course); he did not spare them from death but gave their lives over to the bubonic plague (78:49–50)
7. he struck down every firstborn of Egypt, the first-fruits strength (i.e., of their reproductive power) in the tents of Ham (78:51; see 105:23).

Greenstein³³¹ argues the sequence “does make rhetorical sense and can be explained.” Modifying his explanation somewhat, the plagues begin with an assault on water (blood) and its land and vegetation (flies, frogs, locusts, and hail); then they escalate in severity to attacking and killing the livestock (hail and lightning), even more severely the people (bubonic plague), and most severely all the first born (“the first fruits of manhood”).

Guidance to the Holy Land: 52–55

The seven plagues on Egypt are now matched with seven verbs of movement that depict God as shepherding his flock of people through extreme danger to the Promised Land. The contrasts between God’s destruction of Egypt and his shepherding care of Israel are marked with an exclamation point by their contrasting ends: death “in the tents of Ham” (78:51) versus settled “in their tents” (78:55).

In the first three verbs of movement, he guided Israel through the Sea and the Wilderness:

1. Then he led out his people like sheep and
2. guided them (wayy^enah^agem) in the wilderness like a flock.
3. He led them (wayyanḥem) safely so they were not afraid, as they were beforehand (Exod 14:10); but the sea overwhelmed (cf. Isa 43:4).

The remaining four verbs of movement pertain to the conquest of the Holy Land (78:54–55):

4. He brought them to his holy (i.e., set apart by his presence) land (lit. “border”), to the mountain (or “hill-country”; Exod 15:17) which his right hand (i.e., by military might) won.
5. He drove out nations before them and
6. apportioned them for a possession (or “heritage” [see 78:62]) and
7. settled . . . in their tents.

The cycle of 78:32–37 now spirals downward.

Israel’s Apostasy and God’s Fury: 56–64

Introduction: Rebel, Test God in the Land: 56–59

“Yet they (“the tribes of Israel” [78:55]) tested and rebelled against the Most High God (see 78:17, 35) and did not keep his testimonies (see 78:4) but turned disloyal, faithless like their ancestors; they proved false like a slack bow” (NAB).

“For they provoked him to anger with their high places,” a reference to natural or artificial eminences left by the Canaanites, which had such furnishings as standing stones and Asherah poles and such practices as prostitution and other immoral fertility rites. “They moved him to jealousy (i.e., his zeal to possess exclusively; cf. Jas 4:5) with their idols (i.e., carved images). When God heard (the Hebrew text lacks an object; probably “the cry of their sin” is intended; see 78:21; cf. Gen 4:10), he was full of wrath, and he utterly rejected (i.e., wanted nothing to do with and did not identify inwardly with) Israel.”

God’s Abandons Shiloh Sanctuary and Slaughter of the People: 60–64

The ruin of the religious signs of God’s presence (the ark and its priesthood) frames the slaughter of Israel’s young men, their best and their future (cf. 1Sam 4).

“He forsook (i.e., left unattended and uncared for) his dwelling place (or “residence”) mankind.” Shiloh, located in Ephraim, was the center of worship from the time of Joshua to the time of Eli and Samuel (cf. Josh 18:1, 8; 21:1–2; Judg 18:31; 1Sam 1:3; Jer 7:12). “And delivered his power (a metonymy for the ark, the symbol of his power to prevail over adversity or of solid protection in it) to captivity (cf. 1Sam 4:1–22). His glory (or splendor that causes people to rejoice and be proud; a metonymy for his power and so also of the ark; see 96:6; cf. Prov 20:29; Isa 52:1) to the hand (fig. of control and power) of the foe” (historically, the Philistines).

First the army was slaughtered (78:62–63) and then their priests (78:64).

“He gave his people over (cf. 78:48, 50) to the sword; he vented his wrath on his heritage (cf. 78:55). Fire devoured their (Hebrew “his”; the antecedent could be God but more probably the collective “people” [78:62]) young men.” “Fire” and “sword” are symbolic of destructive warfare. “Their (Hebrew “his”) young woman had no marriage-song” (lit. “virgins were not praised”; cf. Jer 7:34; 16:9)—that is to say, the young men died en masse, leaving no husbands for the virgins.

“Their (Hebrew “his”; see 78:63) priests fell by the sword (cf. 1Sam 4:11), and their (Hebrew “his”; possibly Phinehas’s [cf. 1Sam 4:20–22], but more probably of all the dead soldiers) widows made no lamentations” (i.e., the invading army and the ensuing panic allowed no time to carry out the normal mourning rites). In sum, there were neither wedding songs nor funeral laments.

Asaph does not give God’s wrath the last word. Rather, he ends it with God’s salvation of Israel and his election of the tribe of Judah, of Zion, and of David. He does not explain why God “woke up,” implying sovereign mercy.

Delivered from Enemies: 65–66

“Then the Lord of All (translation mine; see 16:2) awoke (see 44:23) as from sleep, as a warrior wakes from the stupor of wine (NIV; cf. Isa 42:13). And he put his (or “their” [see 78:63–64]) adversaries to rout.” An alternative translation is: “he struck his enemies on the rump” (NJB; so LXX, Vulgate, “in the hinder parts” [KJV]) refers to God afflicting the Philistines with hemorrhoids (1Sam 5). “He put them to everlasting shame” (a perpetual target for verbal abuse, such as insults and/or scoffing; cf. 44:13–16).

Judah, Zion, and David Chosen: 67–72

God elected the tribe of Judah for his sanctuary (78:67–69) and the progenitor of David (cf. Gen 49:10), whom he chose to shepherd Israel (78:70–72).

Asaph, who probably lived through the reign of Solomon (see Ps 74: superscript), profiles God’s choice of Judah for his permanent sanctuary against his rejection of Ephraim. “He rejected the tent of Joseph (i.e., of Manasseh and Ephraim, two large and powerful tribes [cf. Josh 17:16]), he did not choose the tribe of Ephraim (see 78:9; cf. Hos 13:17), but he chose the tribe of Judah, Mount Zion (see 2:6), which he loves (i.e., strongly desired to possess as his residence). He built his sanctuary like the high heavens (i.e., very lofty and dominating in appearance), like the earth, which he founded forever” (i.e., solid, enduring, and permanent; cf. 1Kgs 5–7).

“He chose David his servant” (a high accolade)—an echo of the Davidic covenant (2Sam 7:8)—”and took him from the sheepfolds” (better, “sheep pens”; symbolic of his lowly station and humble origins and of his selection as one out of many; cf. 1Sam 16:1–13, esp. 11). “From following the nursing ewes (i.e., the most tender and vulnerable; cf. Gen 33:13; Isa 40:11) he brought him to shepherd (see Ps 23) Jacob his people (see 78:1, 20, 52, 62), Israel his inheritance (see 78:55, 62). And David shepherded them (i.e., God’s people [78:71]) with integrity of heart (NIV; wholly devoted to serving God and his people [cf. 1Sam 13:14]); and guided them with skillful hands.”

The content and structure of this complaint psalm at a glance:

Superscript

I. Lament: Temple Defiled, Dead Dishonored, Israel Derided: 1–4

A. Past Atrocities of Nations: 1–3

B. Derision by Neighbors of Faithful Survivors: 4

II. Petitions: Punish Hostile Nations and Deliver Israel: 5–9

A. Punish Hostile Nations: 5–7

B. Save Israel out of Compassion and for God’s Glory: 8–9

III. Avenge Blood, Preserve Remnant, Justly Punish, and People Praise: 10–13

A. Avenge Blood: 10

B. Preserve the Remnant: 11

C. Justly Punish the Nations: 12

D. Israel Will Praise God Forever: 13

Postscript: Psalm 80: superscript

“A psalm of Asaph” (see Ps 74: superscript).

The graphic depictions of the temple defiled by invaders, of Jerusalem reduced to rubble (79:1; cf. Jer 26:18) and filled with unburied corpses (79:2–3; cf. 16:4), and of taunting neighbors (79:4; cf. 12:14) suggest that the “we” are the faithful survivors of the epochal transformation of Jerusalem, the residence of the God of life, into a place of death (c. 587 BC). As in Psalm 74, the prophet Asaph (c. 1000 BC) gave the survivors hope by placing this petition for justice centuries beforehand in their mouths. Jeremiah cited 79:6–7 before Jerusalem’s fall (cf. Jer 10:25³³²). Though scorned by the nations, the remnant know their identity as God’s servants and devoted people (79:2, 10), “the sheep of your pasture” (79:12).

They confess that as a nation they sinned and that God justly punished them (cf. Dan 9), and so they ask God to atone for their sins (79:9). But they also know the cruel nations acted unjustly and justly deserve to be punished. All three stanzas move from attention on the ungodly nations (79:1, 6, 10) to the faithful survivors (79:4, 9, 13).

Each stanza appeals to God’s honor (79:1, 6, 9, 10) and his pity (79:2–3, 8, 11); in that light the psalm ends with his praise. Verse 10, the key verse, encapsulates the message: God manifests his glory among the nations by answering the prayer of his people that their blood be avenged (cf. Matt 23:35; Luke 18:7; Rev 6:9ff).

The petitions that God’s mercy “come speedily” (79:8) and that his vengeance would happen “before their eyes” (79:10) were answered in 539 BC, when Cyrus destroyed Babylon (Dan 5:30³³³) and restored Israel (cf. 2Chr 36:23).

The survivors narrow the focus of their complaint from the defiled land to Jerusalem and the temple (79:1), to the numerous dishonored corpses of the faithful (79:2–3), to their present humiliation. They aim to move God to defend his and their honor and to pity them.

Past Atrocities of the Nations against God and His Devoted People: 1–3

They defiled God’s holy property. “O God (see 42:1) . . . your inheritance” (see 2:8), a metonymy for the Promised Land and its people. They also dishonored those devoted to him. “They have given the dead bodies of your servants (see 18:1) . . . your faithful” (ḥ^asîdîm, see 4:3). “To the birds . . . the beasts of the earth” symbolizes utter degradation (Jer 16:4).

Derision by Neighbors of Faithful Survivors: 4

The survivors now depict their humiliation: “We are objects of contempt to our neighbors” (NIV), a metonymy for Edom, Moab, and Ammon (cf. Ezek 25:1–17; 35:1–15).

The petition to punish the nations appeals to God’s justice and honor (79:5–7); the petition for the survivors’ salvation appeals to God’s forgiveness and compassion (79:8) and to his honor (79:9)

Punish Hostile Nations: 5–7

“How long” vents exasperation at an urgent situation that has existed too long. “Will you be angry . . . burn like fire.” His blazing anger is a metonymy for his intense punishment of apostate Israel. “Pour out your anger on the nations” redirects God’s wrath against his people to the barbaric nations that he raised up to punish the apostates. Because the nations afflicted Israel in hostility to God and unjustly “devoured Jacob,” who did them no wrong, these nations also are under the Sovereign’s wrath (cf. Isa 10:24–26). These nations “do not know you”—that is to say, they are not “in a relationship . . . with characteristics of love, trust, respect and open communication.”³³⁴

Save Israel Out of Compassion and for God’s Glory: 8–9

“Do not remember against us the sins of past generations” (NIV) exempts the faithful from parental guilt (cf. Ezek 18:20). “Let your compassion,” personified as a friend, “come speedily to meet us” echoes the historic confession of God’s benevolences (cf. Exod 34:6) and adds another reason why God should answer their petitions.

“Help us” implies both their faith that they are God’s people (79:2, 10, 13) and their inadequacy to deliver themselves. “Forgive our sins” (NIV) communicates their repentance (cf. Dan 9:2–6; Ezra 8:6–13) and satisfies the proverb “whoever confesses and renounces their sin finds mercy” (Prov 28:13).

They now appeal to God’s avenging power, pity, and rightful praise.

Avenge Blood: 10

“Why” vents exasperation that the situation even exists, “a cry of faith in perplexity, not of fundamental doubt,”³³⁵ “The nations say, ‘Where is their God?’” To hostile nations, their destruction of Jerusalem validates the superiority of their lifeless idols to the LORD. “Make known among the nations that you avenge the outpoured blood of your servants” (NIV; see 79:2; cf. Deut 32:43). “Avenge” signifies that “a ruler keeps his community whole by delivering his wronged subjects and punishing their guilty slayers who did not respect his rule.”³³⁶

Preserve the Remnant: 11

“Let the groans of the prisoners” going into exile “come before you (i.e., as emissaries into your heavenly sanctuary) . . . preserve (or “give preeminence to”³³⁷) those doomed to die” in exile (cf. 2Kgs 25:27–29).

Justly Punish the Nations: 12

“Pay back into the laps” refers to the fold in a robe above the midsection where the hands can carry infants or lambs (Num 11:23; Isa 40:11); here it functions as a metaphor for the “contempt,” a metonymy for atrocities, “they hurled” from it (NIV; see Ps 79:1–4). Sevenfold is symbolic of perfect justice (cf. Gen 4:15), not literal (cf. Exod 22:1–15).

Israel Will Praise God Forever: 13

“And” (NJB) signifies a collateral, not a conditional or contrary, circumstance. “We . . . will give grateful praise to you forever” (translation mine) and fulfill their mission (Isa 43:21). God performed the greatest deliverance when he raised from the dead Jesus Messiah, the Pioneer and Perfecter of faith. Today, God is praised continually around the globe.

“To the choirmaster. According to Lilies.”

The content and structure of this complaint psalm at a glance:

Superscript

I. Address, Introductory Petitions, and Refrain: 1–3

A. Address and Introductory Petitions to Be Heard: 1–2

B. Refrain: Restore Us: 3

II. Complaint and Refrain: 4–7

A. Complaint: 4–6

B. Refrain: Restore Us: 7

III. Vine Metaphor for Israel and Refrain: 8–19

A. Confession of Salvation History: 8–11

1. Exodus, Conquest, and Settlement: 8–9

2. Establishment of Kingdom: 10–11

B. First Cycle: Lament for Land and Petitions 12–15

1. Lament: Land Ravaged: 12–13

2. Petitions: Return and Care for Israel: 14–15

C. Second Cycle: Lament for Dead, Petition, and Refrain: 16–19

1. Lament for God’s Punishment and People’s Perishing: 16

2. Petition: Revive Israel to Rule in God’s Name: 17–18

3. Refrain: 19

Postscript: Psalm 81: superscript

“To . . . Lilies.” Postscript to Psalm 79.

“A Testimony (‘ēdût, 19:8; 78:5). Of Asaph (see Ps 74: superscript), a Psalm.”

Psalm 80 is a complaint psalm of the survivors of the Northern Kingdom after the Assyrians conquered their land (738–721 BC; cf. 2Kgs 15:29; 17:3–23). The psalm’s scenario features the “Joseph” tribes (i.e., the northern tribes; cf. Ezek 37:16–19; Amos 5:6) and presumes the temple existence before its destruction by Babylon (see Ps 80:1; contra Pss 74 and 79). Moreover, foreigners have ravaged Joseph’s land, burned its cities, and killed its people (80:12ff, 16). The LXX superscript, “a psalm concerning the Assyrians,” supports this inference. Archaeological evidence uncovers that survivors of the Assyrian conquest fled south (cf. 2Chr 30:6–9); this could explain their prayer at the Jerusalem temple. So Asaph, a priest and seer (1000 BC), gave these suffering survivors an inspired, reassuring appeal for restoration, as he had for the survivors of the Babylon’s destruction of the temple and Jerusalem (see Pss 74, 79). They interpret their history as under God’s sovereignty. If he made Israel, then destroyed it, he can restore it.

The refrain “restore us” (80:3, 7, 19) divides the psalm into three stanzas. If we count the superscription (80:1 in Hebrew text) with the address and the introductory petitions (80:2–4 [80: 1–3 in English]), then the lament (80:4–7) and the three stanzas of the vine metaphor (80:8–11, 12–15, 16–19) each consists of four verses.

By “restore” is meant to bring back the well-being and glory of David’s kingdom, as can be inferred from the reference to his kingdom in verse 10f. But an even better kingdom is envisioned. The “son of man” will rule universally at God’s right hand (80:17), the pray-ers will not be disloyal to God (80:18), which assumes the new covenant (cf. Jer 31:31–34), unlike Moses’s prophecy that Israel would be disloyal to the covenant that he mediated (Deut 32). The psalm teaches that God will restore his kingdom to its ideal state in response to his people’s appeal that his “kingdom come” (cf. Matt 6:10), and that he does so for his praise (Ps 80:19).

Christ is the true vine (John 15:1). Moreover, the reference to “the son of man” at God’s right hand (see Ps 80:17) found fulfillment when the Son of Man ascended into heaven and sat down at God’s right hand (Ps 110:1; Matt 26:64; Acts 2:33; Heb 1:3; passim).

Address and Introductory Petitions to Be Heard: 1–2

“Give ear, O Shepherd (cf. Ps 23) . . . who led Joseph (see 77:15) . . . enthroned [as King] upon the cherubim” (see 99:1), a synecdoche for the ark of the covenant, the throne of God. “Shine forth” (see 50:2) appeals for his radiant theophany on Zion (see 50:2) that dispelled the darkness and filled the people with joy (cf. Deut 33:2) to appear again in darkened Israel. “Before Ephraim, Benjamin,³³⁸ and Manasseh” refers to northern tribes, who descended from Rachel, and alludes to their position to the west of the tabernacle, behind the ark (cf. Num 2:18–22) in their triumphant march to the Promised Land (Num 10:21–24). “Awaken your (personified) might” is a metonymy for marching into battle (see 44:23). “That we may be saved” (see 3:7) gives the reason (see Ps 44:23ff). “In spite of God’s inattention . . . the people address him in the most exalted terms.”³³⁹

Refrain: Restore Us: 3

The titles of God in the refrain escalate from God (80:3) to God of Heavenly Armies (80:7), to LORD God of Heavenly Armies (80:19), matching the intensification of the prayer. “Restore us”: see superscript above. “Let your face shine on us” (see 4:6) is a metaphor and idiom for the ruler’s beneficent favor and echoes the Aaronic benediction (Num 6:5).

Complaint: 4–6

The complaint motif typically features God’s silence (80:4), Israel’s extreme suffering (80:5), and the enemy’s gloating (80:6). “How long” vents exasperation at the enduring and yet urgent need. “LORD God of Heavenly Armies” (NLT) implies the King can impose his royal will. “Will you smolder against” (NIV) is an anthropomorphism for God’s “anger” against apostasy. “Against the prayer of your people” refers to their appeals that God adjudicate and redress the crimes done to them by foreigners whom they have not wronged. “You have fed them with the bread of tears,” not water from the rock (contra 78:20, 25), is ironic, for bread should sustain life with joy, not deplete life with sorrow (see 6:6). The tears streaming down the cheeks of the fasting pray-ers on reaching their lips is escalated to “you have made us drink by the bowlful” (NIV; lit. “by a third” [i.e., c. “two gallons”³⁴⁰]). While Israel weeps, their neighbors divvy up the spoil rejoicing: “you make us an object of contention” for divvying up the spoil “to our neighbors” while the competitors “laugh among themselves” at Israel’s expense.

Refrain: Restore Us: 7

See 80:3.

The vine is a common metaphor for Israel (e.g., Isa 5:7; Ezek 17:6–10; Hos 10:1). In Palestine vines wind themselves around the loftiest trees, and the vine’s branches may be a foot and a half in diameter and form a hut thirty feet square.³⁴¹

Confession of Salvation History: 8–11

Exodus, Conquest, and Settlement: 8–9

The survivors confess their salvation history in two couplets, The first couplet (80:8ff) recalls the establishment of Israel in the land under the leadership of Moses and Joshua. “You transplanted a vine” (NIV) alludes to the Exodus; “drove out nations” (cf. Josh 11:43) alludes to the conquest; and “filled the land” (cf. Josh 21:43, 44) alludes to the settlement.

Establishment of Kingdom: 10–11

The second couplet (80:10ff) recalls Israel’s rise to imperial power under David: “it sent out its branches to the [Mediterranean] Sea . . . to the [Euphrates] River” (cf. see 72:8; 2Chr 9:26), fulfilling the Abrahamic covenant (Gen 15:18). This confession of salvation history is followed by two cycles of lament and petitions.

First Cycle: Lament for Land and Petitions to Return and Care for Israel: 12–15

Lament: Land Ravaged: 12–13

“Why then” expresses exasperation at the absurdity of the wrong being done to them. “Have you broken down its walls” (cf. Isa 5:5) signifies God’s removal of his protection of his “vine.” “So that all who pass along pluck its grapes” refers to its being plundered by other nations. “The boar (cf. Lev 11:7) from the forest (i.e., wild and fierce) ravage it” may refer to the Assyrian kings (cf. Isa 8:4); “and insects (or “pests”) from the fields feed on it” (NIV) may refer to other plundering nations (Ps 80:12b).

Petitions: Return and Care for Israel: 14–15

“Return to us (NIV) God of Heavenly Armies” (see 80:7). “Look down from heaven” entails God’s transcendence; “and see” entails his becoming immanent. “Watch over (or “care for” [see 17:3]) this vine . . . the son” (or branch)—an allusion to Genesis 49:22³⁴²—”you have raised up (or “nurtured”) for yourself” (NIV).

Second Cycle: Lament for Dead, Petition for Revived to Rule, and Refrain: 16–19

Lament for God’s Punishment and People’s Perishing: 16

“[Your vine] is burned . . . like cut down brushwood” (translation mine). “At the rebuke of your face” signifies his presence and expresses his intent or resolve and his displeasure. And so “they (i.e., the people of Israel) perish” (CSB). They confess God as the Ultimate Cause of their dismay and inferentially of their salvation.

Petition: Revive Israel to Rule in God’s Name: 17–18

“Let your hand be on” signifies to have authority over, take responsibility for, and possibly to commission for a specific office or task. “The man of your right hand” refers to his position of honor and strength (cf. 1Kgs 2:19; Ps 45:9). The king’s throne in the Hall of Justice, probably facing north, was located at the right of God’s throne in the temple, facing east (1Kgs 7:7; 10:18); it was called the “throne of the LORD” (1Chr 29:23) from which the king’s scepter rules the world (Ps 110:1). “The son of man (Hebrew ben-’ādām) whom you raised (NIV; or “nurtured”) for yourself.” “Man”/“son of man” refers to Israel, as can be inferred by the catch term “the son ( = shoot of a vine [i.e., Israel]; see n. 262) you have raised for yourself” (80:15). “Then (better, “and” [see 79:13]) we will not turn back from you” anticipates the new covenant (see above) and implies their repentance; “revive us” (NIV) from the dead, “and we will call upon your name” (i.e., worship the LORD alone) to enable them to achieve their mission.

Refrain: 19

See verse 3.

“To the choirmaster: according to The Gittith.”

The content and structure of this hymn and prophetic-didactic psalm at a glance:

Superscript

I. Hymn: 1–4

A. Summons: Praise God at Rosh Ha-shanah: 1–3

B. Reason: A Covenant Stipulation: 4

II. Oracle: 5–16

A. Prologue to the First Commandment: 5–7

B. Admonition to Hear the First Commandment and Reflections: 8–16

1. Admonition to Hear Basic Stipulation: 8–10

2. Accusation and Punishment: 11–12

3. Renewed Invitation: 13–16

“To the choirmaster . . . Gittith.” Postscript to Psalm 80.

“Of Asaph.”

Asaph composed Psalm 81 for Rosh ha-shanah (“New Year’s Day” [“new moon,” 81:3a]), the first day of the seventh month (c. mid-September)—also called “Feast of Trumpets” (see 81:1; Lev 23:24; Num 29:1–6)—and for the Feast of Tabernacles/Booths on the fifteenth day (“full moon,” 81:3b). At its festivals Israel celebrated their harvests and their sacred history.

Like psalms 50 and 95, psalm 81 consists of a hymn (81:1–4) and an oracle (81:5–16). Its bi-partite structure matches Asaph’s dual roles as priest and as prophet (2Chr 29:30). In the hymn, Asaph the priest identified himself with the worshipers (cf. “our strength” [81:1]); in the oracle, as a prophet, God speaks through him to the people in an “I-you” encounter (cf. 81:10). The hymn typically consists of a summons to praise (81:1–3) and reason (81:4), to wit, it is a covenant stipulation matching the covenant stipulation of the oracle, namely, to have no foreign gods (81:9).

Verses 5–7 provide the historical context for the admonition to keep that fundamental commandment. In verse 5a, the tense shifts from the present to the past. In verse 5b, Asaph presents himself as the prophet of the following oracle by reprising Israel’s experience at Sinai as his experience: “I hear a language I had not known” (cf. Exod 20:1, 18–21). At Sinai God spoke the Ten Commandments directly to the people, not through Moses (Exod 20:19). Now Asaph, as a prophet, hears God reprise those words, and through him God addresses every generation of Israel. The recollections of the Exodus from Egypt (Ps 81:5–6) and of God’s provision of water at Meribah (81:7) provide the motive for keeping the covenant stipulation (cf. Exod 19:4; 20:2; Deut 6:20–25).

The admonition “Hear . . . There shall be no strange God among you” (81:8–9) is the focus of the psalm, and verse 8 is its key verse. All that has gone before (81:1–7) anticipates the admonition, and the rest of the psalm reflects upon it. A selah at the end of verse 7 separates the admonition from 81:1–7. Asaph probably composed the psalm in the light of Solomon’s apostasy (1Kgs 11:1–10).

The key word (šāma‘, “hear”/“listen”) together with “my people” mark off a tripartite structure of the oracle (81:8, 11, 13): the admonishment to keep the first commandment (81:8–9); Israel’s past disobedience brought disaster (81:11–12); and Israel’s future well-being depends on keeping it (81:13–16).

Today, God desires his Church to worship only him in the name of the Lord Jesus Christ (John 15:16) and to listen to Jesus Messiah (Matt 17:5). Moreover, the festivals are a type of Christ (Col 2:16ff), but their observation depends on a Christian’s personal conviction (Rom 14:5ff).

Summons: Praise God at Rosh Ha-shanah: 1–3

“Sing . . . to the God of Jacob,” who sent his angel to deliver the progenitor of the twelve tribes of Israel from all harm (Gen 48:16). That tile forms an inclusio around the hymn (81:1b, 4b). “Blow the ram’s horn at the New Moon” of the seventh month (Lev 23:24; Num 29:1)—silver trumpets were blown at each new moon (Num 10:2, 10)—”on our (i.e., the pilgrims at the temple) feast.”

Reason: A Covenant Stipulation: 4

“For it is a statute (ḥôq, enduring stipulation), a rule” (mišpāṭ).

See above.

Prologue to the First Commandment: 5–7

Verse 5 is a janus (see above). “He made (or “appointed”) it (the new moon and full moon festivals) a decree (ēdût, “a covenant stipulation”; see Ps 80: superscript) in Joseph (see 77:15) when he (God) went to war against Egypt (JPS). I hear (cf. Deut 5:2–4) a language (lit. “lip”) I had not known” (i.e., the language of heaven, not of earth).

As in the original giving of the Ten Commandments, the admonition to keep the First Commandment (81:8–9) is given in the context of recalling the exodus (cf. Exod 19:3–6; 20:2–3; Deut 6:20–24). Israel’s obedience is based on God’s virtue, not on his coercion. “I relieved . . . (Exod 1:11; 5:4, 5; 6:6) from the basket” in which the loads of bricks were carried (Exod 1:14). “I answered you (see Ps 3:4; cf. Exod 3:7–8) in the secret place of the thunder” (see Exod 20:18; Ps 77:17–20). Salvation history is here extended to Meribah (“The Place of Quarreling” [Exod 17:1–7; Deut 6:16; 33:8]) as a janus to the warning (Ps 81:8). At Meribah, Israel put God to the test (see 95:8–9), but God led them there to test their spiritual purity: “I tested you at the waters of Meribah.” Their impurity presaged their tragic history. “Selah.”

Admonition to Hear the First Commandment and Reflections: 8–16

Admonition to Hear Basic Stipulation: 8–10

“Hear (cf. Deut 6:4), O my people . . . There shall be no strange (i.e., outside the kin group) god among you,” the fundamental and most important of the Ten Commandments. A person committed to Israel’s God obeys him. To further base the stipulation on grace and not on law, God adds that in past he was their savior: “who brought you up . . .;” and in the present is their Provider: “open your mouth wide . . .” (see Ps 78:23–29).

Accusation and Punishment: 11–12

Typically, oracles of doom consist of accusation and punishment. Looking to the past, God painfully accuses his people of infidelity: “but my people did not listen to my voice.” He then sentenced them: “so I gave them over to their stubborn hearts (Isa 6:9ff; 63:17; Rom 1:24; 2Thes 2:10) to follow their own counsels” (Exod 32:1–6; Judg 8:27; 1Kgs 12:25–33), a metonymy for the covenant curses (Lev 26:1–29; Deut 28:15–66). The people choose God’s judgment!

Renewed Invitation: 13–16

Looking to the future, however, God offers hope through repentance: “Oh, that my people would listen to me.” As for their enemies: “I would soon subdue their enemies” (81:14–15). Asaph further reflects on God’s promises of protection and provision: “Those who hate . . . forever (81:15). But you he would feed you” (81:16; Deut 32:13).

The content and structure of this prophetic-didactic psalm at a glance:

Superscript

A. “Gods” on Trial: 1

B. Charge to Corrupt “Gods” to Do Justice: 2–4

X. “Gods” in Spiritual Darkness: 5

B’. “Gods” Will Die Like Mortals: 6–7

A’. God Petitioned to Judge the Nations: 8

“A psalm of Asaph.”

Here is content and structure of this prophetic charge to Israel’s corrupt judges.

The crux interpretum of Psalm 82 is the identification of ’elôhîm (“gods”) in verse 1b and of ‘^adat-’el (“congregation of God”) in verse 1a.

Most modern English versions, including the ESV, and academics plausibly, but wrongly, identify them as literal gods or divine beings/angels in “the divine council” (ESV) of heaven (82:1a). This interpretation finds support in the LXX (“in the assembly of the gods (plural)” [82:1a]) and in Canaanite myths of the gods in the council of El, the high god in the Canaanite religion. It is argued that God had assigned these divine beings to rule the nations (see Deut 32:8 [ESV]; Dan 10:13), but now God judges them for injustice (82:2; cf. “spiritual forces of evil in heavenly realms” [Eph 6:12]) and sentences them to die like men (82:7).

Traditionally, however, translators and commentators identified ’elôhîm (“gods”) as Israel’s “judges” and ‘^adat-’el (“the congregation of God” in the Elohistic Psalter) as the equivalent of “the congregation of the LORD” elsewhere (i.e., Israel; e.g., Num 27:17; Josh 22:16, 17). The NIV represents this tradition by placing “gods” in quotation marks to signify a unique sense and translating ‘^adat-’el “the great congregation.”³⁴³ This interpretation finds support in the Law where litigants are brought before ’elôhîm (“God”) to adjudicate their disputes (Exod 22:7, 8; i.e., his “judges” [so KJV, ASV, NAS, NET, CSB, NIV]; cf. Exod 7:1; 18:1; 21:6; Deut 1:17; 16:18). Moreover, the ’elôhîm in verses 2–3 are accused of judging unjustly, most probably a reference to human judges on earth, not to divine beings in heaven. Ross thinks the judges in Psalm 81:2–4 are the gods’ vice-regents on earth,³⁴⁴ but the shift from God addressing a council of heavenly divine beings in verse 1 to addressing judges on earth (82:2–4) without a signal in the text is too abrupt. Most importantly, Jesus Messiah and his opponents accepted the traditional interpretation: “Jesus answered them,” who accused him of blasphemy, “‘Is it not written in your Law,’ “I said, you are gods”? (82:6a), . . . to whom the word of God came?’” (John 10:34–35). The word of God came to Israel’s judges, not to divine beings and/or to their judges (John 10:34).

It is argued against the traditional interpretation that the judicial sentence “like men you shall die” is fitting for divine, not human, beings. Evidently, however, Israel’s corrupt judges thought of themselves as gods and above the Law because the Law called them “gods” (cf. Acts 12:21–23; 2Thes 2:3–4). But God now humbles their hubris: “you will die like any other ruler” (cf. Ezek 28:1–10). And as Kirkpatrick notes, the notion that angels die (82:7) introduces a startling novel doctrine.³⁴⁵

“How long” (see 80:5) implies their longstanding corruption in urgent need of change. God defines justice as defending the exploited (82:3–4).

“They walk about in darkness” signifies their inability to progress toward a goal while stumbling into horrors. “The foundations of the earth are shaken” denotes the roots of mountains in the sea and may be a metaphor to express that “the principles on which the moral order of the world is based are imperilled [sic!].”³⁴⁶

“You are . . . sons of the Most High” (see 29:1), an epithet for God, refers to Israel’s, not to foreign, rulers.

“Arise, O God (see 3:7) judge the earth.” This response of faith to God’s Word is the psalm’s message.

The content and structure of this lament psalm at a glance:

Superscript

I. Lament: Nations Plot to Annihilate Israel: 1–8

A. Address, Introductory Petition, and Lament: 1–2

1. Address and Petition to Take Action: 1

2. Lament: Nations Insolent against God: 2

B. Nations Plot Israel’s Annihilation: 3–8

1. The Plot against Israel and God: 3–5

2. Enumeration of Nations: 6–8

II. Petition: Shame Nations for Their Salvation and God’s Glory: 9–18

A. Destruction Compared to the Period of the Judges: 9–12

1. Against Canaan: 9–10

2. Against Midian: 11–12

B. Destruction Compared to Tempest and Fire: 13–16

C. Nations to Know that the LORD Is the Most High God: 17–18

Postscript: Psalm 84: superscript

“A song. A psalm of Asaph.” Psalm 83 is a fitting climax to the Asaphic Collection (73–83).

The chief end of history is that all nations know that the LORD, Israel’s God, is the Most High over all the earth, and to enjoy his beatific rule forever (cf. Phil 2:9–10). This song petitions God to make the nations that are plotting Israel’s destruction come to this realization. Verse 18, the key verse, summarizes the message.

In the old dispensation, the LORD allowed tyrannical kings, who trusted in their sinful gods, to wage bloody wars against him and against his army to show his supremacy over them (cf. Exod 7:1–5). The war envisioned in Psalm 83 is defensive and just: as the nations plotted Israel’s annihilation, the psalmist prays for their annihilation. Through Israel’s victory God shames the hostile nations for their false confidences and invites them in their fright to enjoy his salvation or perish.

This carnal war is an example for the Church’s spiritual warfare in a hostile world. In the new dispensation, however, God demonstrates his power over the nations and his love for them on the cross of Christ and in the empty tomb, not on a battlefield.

In the scenario of Psalm 83, a ten-nation confederacy surrounds Israel on all sides and conspires to wipe her off the map, entailing the elimination of her God. (The scenario is a type of Christ on the cross). Our historical sources do not pinpoint this incident, but 2 Chronicles 20 is an analogous scenario.

In the psalm’s first section, the psalmist laments the imminent attack; in its second section, he asks the LORD to annihilate the enemy (83:13–15), but he also prays that, as he annihilates them, he will fill them with shame so that they will submit to this rule (83:16b, 18).

His petition for a universal victory in space and time (83:17) will not be answered until the Parousia. Until then, the Church puts on this psalm to arm itself against a dark world and evil forces in heaven (2Cor 4:8ff; Eph 6:12).

Address, Introductory Petition, and Lament: 1–2

Address and Petition to Take Action: 1

Addresses to God (see 42:1) frame the opening verse to emphasize that he alone is Israel’s hope. By remaining unengaged in the crisis, God stirs the psalmist to become engaged with him by faith. “O God, do not remain silent . . . O God.”

Lament: Nations Insolent against God: 2

The psalmist appeals “for . . . those who hate (šn’) you have raised (ns’) their heads” in a show of insolent, bold animosity against God (cf. Judg 8:28).

Nations Plot Israel’s Annihilation: 3–8

The tyrants’ subjects were in corporate solidarity with them, unlike the individual freedom of choice in a democracy.

The Plot against Israel and God: 3–5

The psalmist is fully alert to the imminent threat, unlike some Christians today who are blind to the threats of Islam and Marxism. “They lay crafty plans . . . against your treasured ones.” He allows their own words to damn themselves. “Come” on, they encourage one another. “Let us wipe them out . . . (so that) the name of Israel is remembered (or “mentioned”) no more!”

Since Israel is united with God (cf. Acts 9:4), the intimidating alliance is ultimately against Israel’s Protector: against you they make a covenant (i.e., form an alliance).

Enumeration of Nations: 6–8

The naming of the ten confederated nations roots the incident in history, and “ten” symbolizes completeness or fullness.³⁴⁷ In the southeast are “the tents of Edom and the Ishmaelites”—descendants of Abraham’s not chosen sons; in the east, “Moab and the Hagrites” (nomadic tribes east of Jordan, descended from uppity Hagar); “Gebal,” probably near Petra, and “Ammon (today the kingdom of Jordan); in the south (Negev and Sinai), Amalek;” in the west, “Philistia with the inhabitants of Tyre” in the northwest. “Asshur” (i.e., Assyria), before it demanded tribute from Jehu (c. 840 BC), “has joined them to reinforce (lit. “become an arm of”) Lot’s descendants” (NIV; Moab and Ammon, brothers from incest and born in a cave [Gen 19:36–38]). “Selah” separates the lament and petition motifs.

Destruction Compared to the Period of the Judges: 9–12

In comparing the desired triumph to victories during the time when “judges” rule, the psalmist by faith confesses salvation history, his confidence in God, and the belief that he is unchanging.

Against Canaan: 9–10

“Do to them as” is specified by “[make] them like dung on the ground” (i.e., stinking, unburied carcasses, 83:10). “As you did to Midian” may be put first because it the most amazing victory of that time (Judg 7–8). As you did “to Sisera and Jabin (the Canaanite commander and king, respectively) at the river Kishon (Judg 4), who were destroyed at Endor” nearby (otherwise not recorded).

Against Midian: 11–12

“Make . . . all their princes (see 47:10) like Zebah and Zalmunna” (the Midianite commanders and kings, respectively [Judg 7:24ff; Ps 8:1–21]). Their mouths also condemned them: “Who said, ‘Let us take possession for ourselves of the pastures of God.’”

Destruction Compared to Tempest and Fire: 13–16

Comparisons of Israel’s victory to the utter devastation caused by violent wind and raging fire signify the complete annihilation of the enemies. The address “O my God” personalizes the national crisis and may indicate the king is speaking.³⁴⁸ “Make them like . . . chaff before the wind” (i.e., rout them in a full and rapid retreat). And then “as fire . . . ablaze” in a terrifying and inescapable end for their hubris. The forces of nature are God’s army. “So may you . . . hurricane.” God aims, however, to bring about their conversion to his beatific rule through shame. “Fill their faces with shame (i.e., blush) that they may seek your name,” meaning to consult, “O LORD” who makes himself available to them for their salvation.

Nations to Know that the LORD Is the Most High God: 17–18

“Let them be put to shame”—the painful feeling of public humiliation caused by the consciousness that what one trusted to help proved false—to motivate them to recognize the LORD as the true God. If it doesn’t, “may . . . disgrace.” The ultimate aim of the battle, however, is the glorification of the LORD: “that they may know that you,” which is not the same as “know you,” “whose name is the LORD”—that you alone “are the Most High over all the earth” (cf. 1Kgs 8:43).

“To the choirmaster: according to The Gittith.”

The content and structure of this song of Zion at a glance:

Superscript

I. Longing for God: 1–4

A. Address to God: Love of His Temple: 1

B. Meditation on Pilgrim’s Home: 2–4

1. Yearning for God: 2

2. Birds Find a Home at the Temple: 3

3. Priests Have a Home at the Temple:4

II. Blessedness of Pilgrimage: 5–7

A. Address to God: Pilgrims Pronounced Blessed: 5

B. Meditation on Pilgrim’s Trek: 6–7

1. Parched Valley Blessed with Autumn Rain: 6

2. Each Arrives at the Temple: 7

III. Prayer for King as Protector of Israel: 8–9

IV. Blessings of Being at the Temple: 10–11

A. Address to God: Sublimities at Temple: 10a

B. Meditation on Pilgrim’s Experience of God: 10b–11

V. Those Who Trust in God Pronounced Blessed: 12

Postscript: Psalm 85: superscript

“To . . . The Gittith” (Ps 83: postscript).

“Psalm of the Sons of Korah” (cf. Pss 42–48).

The three stanzas (84:1–4, 5–7, 10–11) pertain to pilgrimage. Each of these begin with an address to the pilgrims’ God, followed by a meditation on the blessed state of pilgrims. Evidently, the psalmist himself is a pilgrim (84:2, 10b).

This psalm, meant for pilgrims at the fall festival between mid-September and mid-October (cf. 42:1–2; 124:1–4), praises God for the sacrament of pilgrimage.³⁴⁹ Verse 5 is the psalm’s key verse and its message in a nutshell. The sacrament involves the pilgrims’ piety in their pilgrimage. Love for Zion (84:1) and faith in God (see 84:12) are the pilgrims’ strength (84:5), enabling them to go from strength to strength until each and every one appears before God (84:7).

A concern for security informs the psalm. In the psalm’s frames, God is addressed as “LORD of Heavenly Armies” (84:1, 4, 12); elsewhere, as “my King,” who protects his realm, and “my God,” the One transcendent in power (84:3). The poet likens God to a sun and shield (84:11) and petitions God for the king, “our shield” (84:9), who mediates God’s protection. The pilgrims’ Protector guarantees their safety.

Christians make their pilgrimage to the temple in an imagination informed by the psalm; but their pilgrimage is to the reality, heavenly Zion, where the ascended Christ is enthroned (Heb 12:22–24). Psalm 84 fortifies them on that pilgrimage.

Address to God: Love of His Temple: 1

“How deeply loved (CJB) . . . LORD of Heaven’s Army” (NLT) expresses the pilgrim’s motivation.

Meditation on Pilgrim’s Home: 2–4

Yearning for God: 2

“My soul (see 6:3) . . . my heart (see 7:10) and my flesh,” a merismus for one’s whole being, “cry out for (or “sing for joy to”) the living God” (NIV, see 42:1–2), the true object of longing and pilgrimage.

Birds Find a Home at the Temple: 3

“Even . . . the swallow (species uncertain) . . . builds her nest and raises (lit. “settles”) her young at a place near your altar, O LORD of Heaven’s Armies . . .!” (NLT). If even a bird, of little value, may find a home near God, how much more trusting pilgrims!

Priests Have a Home at the Temple: 4

The priests already dwell there. “Blessed (see 1:1) . . . house,” the heavenly temple’s shadow on Mount Zion; they are “ever singing your praise (i.e., enthusiastically and joyfully acclaiming God’s saving deeds and sublime attributes). Selah.”

Address to God: Pilgrims Pronounced Blessed: 5

This beatific state is also true of those on pilgrimage. “Blessed are those whose strength (‘ôz, the ability to prevail in difficulty) is in you, whose hearts are set on pilgrimage” (NIV; lit. “roads are in their heart”) to Mount Zion.

Meditation on Pilgrim’s Trek: 6–7

Parched Valley Blessed with Autumn Rain: 6

“As they pass through the Baka Valley (CJB; “Thirsty Valley” [NEB]),³⁵⁰ they make it a place of springs” through God’s blessing on them (see Zech 14:16–19); “yes, the autumn rains,” which come a month later, “will cover it with blessings” (CSB), a metonymy for the rain that ends the parched summer and renews life.

Each Arrives at the Temple: 7

“They go from strength (ḥayil, “competency”) to strength (till) every one of them appears before God in Zion” (see 2:6), a technical term for visiting the sanctuary at festivals (cf. Exod 34:23; Deut 16:16).

“O LORD God of Heaven’s Armies (NLT) . . . give ear . . . Selah.” “Take notice of our shield” (NLT; see 3:4), a metaphor for the king; “look (with favor) on the face of your anointed one” (see 2:2).

Address to God: Sublimities at the Temple: 10a

“How much better (translation mine) is a day in your courts”—think of heaven—”threshold³⁵¹ . . . tents”—contrast to house (cf. 2Sam 7:4–6)—”of the wicked” (see 1:1).

Meditation on Pilgrim’s Experience of God: 10b–11

“For the LORD God is a sun,” a metaphorical royal epithet in ancient Near Eastern texts signifying safety, unlike the danger of darkness. “Shield” (see 84:9). “The LORD bestows . . . honor (see 19:1) . . . whose walk is blameless” (NIV; see 15:2).

See 2:12.

“To the choirmaster.”

The content and structure of this complaint psalm at a glance:

Superscript

I. People’s Petition for Renewed Restoration: 1–7

A. Recital of God’s Past Restoration: 1–3

B. Petition for Renewed Restoration: 4–7

II. God’s Promise of Salvation: 8–13

A. Introduction: 8–9

B. God’s Attributes Assuring Rain: 10–13

1. Personification of God’s Attributes That Effect the Promise: 10

2. Metonymies of God’s Attributes That Effect the Harvest: 11–12

3. Righteousness Personified as the Herald of God’s Theophany: 13

“For the choirmaster.” Postscript to Psalm 84.

“Of the sons of Korah.” See Psalm 42: superscript.

Psalm 85 begins as a complaint psalm and morphs into a psalm of confidence in its two seven-line stanzas, respectively. In the first stanza (85:1–7), the people, addressing God, petition him, “grant us your salvation” (85:7b); in the second stanza (85:8a, b–13), the psalmist-prophet, speaking about God, promises, “his salvation is near.” The catchword “steadfast love” (85:7a, 10a) links the stanzas. The question “will you not revive us again” expects the strong answer “I will” (85:6). This is the psalm’s message and key verse.

Probably, the psalm was composed after Israel’s restoration from Babylon for the autumn festival (mid-September to mid-October) before the rain a month later (see 84:6). Rain and harvest, or the lack of them, signaled God’s favor or his wrath, respectively (cf. Deut 11:8–14; 28:12; Lev 26:4; Ps 4). God’s promise of rain in response to their petition for salvation (85:11–12) infers that they are asking him to end a drought (Job 12:15).

The pre-exilic prophets foresaw the restoration of David’s kingdom as happening in Israel’s restoration from the Babylonian captivity. But Israel’s sin and God’s judgment continued, as documented in the post-exilic prophets and the memoirs of Ezra-Nehemiah. “You expected much, but see; it turned out to be little” (Hag 1:9).

The psalmist’s prophecy of salvation “that the glory of God may dwell in the land” refers to the harvest as a theophany of his glory (85:9). God fulfills that vision by sending the annual rains from heaven (85:11; cf. Ps 126).

The promise finds a greater fulfillment in the Lord Jesus Christ. The apostles testify, “We have seen his glory, the glory of the one and only Son, who came from the Father, full of grace and truth” (John 1:14).

Recital of God’s Past Restoration: 1–3

God’s faithful people’s recital, “you, LORD, were favorable,” confesses their faith in salvation history. The land is both “your land” and “our land” (85:9) because God gave the land to Israel as a usufruct, vis-à-vis, a legal right to use and enjoy his land, while retaining as its Owner the legal right to revoke that access if misused (Lev 25:23; 26:32ff). “You restored the fortunes of Jacob” refers to the restoration from the Babylonian captivity (Jer 30:18; 33:11, 26). This was possible because “you forgave (lit. “lifted up” [25:18]) the iniquity of your people” (see 25:11; cf. Isa 40:2). Consequently, “you withdraw your (righteous) indignation toward us!” Their recital nourishes their petition with faith.

Petition for Renewed Restoration: 4–7

“Restore us again, God of our salvation.” The question “will you prolong your anger to all generations” (see 2:12) implies a protracted period of drought. Their next question, “will you not revive us (lit. “make us alive”) again,” asks God to give them a full and abundant life with a view to “that your people may rejoice (see 5:12) in you,” the chief end of mankind. Their petition “show us (i.e., make us experience) your steadfast love” (see 5:7) expresses their persevering faith in the LORD even during the prolonged drought. God responds with his reassuring promise that he will give them rain.

Introduction: 8–9

The introduction to the promise includes:

1. The divine and human authors: “I (the Korahite composer) will listen to what God the LORD says” (NIV; cf. Heb 2:1)
2. Its substance in a nutshell: “peace” (šālôm, “comprehensive well-being without conflict”; cf. Jer 29:11)
3. The addressee: “his faithful servants” (NIV; see 4:3).

The prophet warns, “let them not turn back to folly” (“moral deficiency by reason of obtuseness”). He further unpacks the addressees and substance: “surely (emphatic) his salvation (3:7) is near (i.e., he is ready and willing to help [see 34:18]) those who fear him (see 19:9) that his glory (see 19:1) may dwell in our land” (see above).

God’s Attributes Assuring Rain: 10–13

In a brilliant piece of poetry, one of the most memorable in the Bible, our Korahite poet multiplies figures of speech for God’s benevolent attributes, which guarantee the faithful that God will keep his promise.

Personification of God’s Attributes That Effect the Promise: 10

The attribute “steadfast love” (85:7, 10) links the assurance to the petition, and the catchword “peace” (šālôm, 85:8, 10) links it to the promise. God’s personified “steadfast Love and Faithfulness meet” together, a parallel to “kiss,” signifies that although the covenant partner cannot compel God to help, they can count it (see 26:3). “Righteousness and Peace kiss each other” signifies that God’s right ordering of everything according to his Law is inseparable from šālôm.

Metonymies of God’s Attributes That Effect the Harvest: 11–12

God’s personified, benevolent attributes are linked to the autumn rain and the spring harvest by using metonymies in the merism of “earth” (’ereṣ) and “heaven” (šāmayīm) for the whole creation. “Faithfulness,” an attribute of God and a metonymy for the harvest, “springs forth from the ground (’ereṣ), and righteousness,” an attribute of God and a metonymy for rain, “looks down from the sky (šāmayīm). Yes, the LORD will give what is good,” a metonymy for rain (see 4:6). “Our land will yield its increase” (i.e., harvests).

Righteousness Personified as the Herald of God’s Theophany: 13

Personified “righteousness (see 85:11) goes before him and prepares the way for his steps” (CSB) as a herald of his theophanic manifestation in the harvest.

The content and structure of this lament psalm at a glance:

Superscript

I. Petitions for Protection and Mercy with Confessions of Trust: 1–7

A. Introductory Petitions and Confession of Trust: 1–5

1. Petitions to Hear, Save, and Have Mercy: 1–4

2. Confidence in God’s Mercy: 5

B. Repetition of Petitions and Confidence: 6–7

1. Hear and Have Mercy: 6

2. Confidence God Will Answer: 7

II. Praise of God’s Incomparable Deeds: 8–10

A. Psalmist Praises Lord of All for Incomparable Deeds: 8

B. All Nations Will Worship Lord of All for Incomparable Deeds: 9

C. Israel’s God Alone Is Lord of All: 10

III. Motifs of a Petition Psalm: 11–17

A. Petition: To Be Taught the LORD’s Ways: 11

B. Vow of Praise: For Salvation and Mercy: 12–13

C. Lament: The Godless Attack Psalmist: 14

D. Confession of Trust: In God’s Mercy: 15

E. Closing Petitions: For Mercy, Salvation, Punishment of Enemy: 16–17

“A prayer of David” (see Ps 17: superscript).

Stanzas I and III contain the motifs of a lament psalm, consist of seven verses each—“seven” symbolizing divine perfection—and pivot around universal praise of God’s incomparable deeds (stanza II; 86:8–10).

David asks the LORD to save him (86:2) from ruthless killers (86:14). He predicates his appeal on God’s benevolent attributes and justice, not on his own righteousness. Indeed, he frames the whole psalm and its first stanza with the plea “be gracious to me” (86:3, 6, 17). Moreover, in his confession of trust, he refers to God’s steadfast love (86:5), and in his petitions, he vows to praise God for his steadfast love (86:13). David first moves God to saving intervention because God’s slave is “truly needy” (86:1), an implicit appeal to God’s mercy. He then notes that the LORD is his God and that he is his devoted servant (86:2), an implicit appeal to God’s faithfulness. In keeping with these motivations, he refers to God by his covenantal name, LORD, in the frames (86:1, 6, 11, 7).

David is not asking for “cheap grace.” He opens the third stanza with the plea “teach me your ways” (86:11), a reference to God’s “doing what is right and just” (Gen 18:19) as well as showing mercy (Exod 33:13; 34:6; Ps 51:13). God’s grace is not contingent upon keeping the Law, but it cannot be separated from a commitment to “walk in it” (Ps 86:11). God revealed his benevolent attributes to Moses in Exodus 34:6 as Moses symbolically carried in his hands the two tablets of stone on which he had written the Law (34:1–4).

David’s own motivation for God’s serving intervention is to glorify God’s name. Indeed, the psalm pivots on David’s anticipation that all the nations will praise God and his deeds as incomparable (86:8–10), giving his personal salvation a universal dimension. Verse 9, the center verse, is the key verse. In keeping with his motivation, David refers to God as “the Lord of All” (translation mine; see 16:2) seven times (86:3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 12, 15) and himself as his ‘ebed, signifying both his function as God’s “servant,” to wit, to glorify his name; and as his “slave,” to wit, God’s property with an obligation to obey him (see Ps 18: superscript). He implies the latter, for he identifies himself as “your slave-girl’s son” (CJB; i.e., he was born a slave of the LORD, not indentured or purchased, and as such would not go free with the father; cf. Exod 21:4). This sole reference—albeit repeated in 116:16—to David’s mother shows he embraced her self-identification as a slave of the LORD as his own, probably from infancy. In his youth, as the David and Goliath story shows, he was already consumed to glorify God’s name universally as in this psalm (86:8–9; cf. 1Sam 17:45–47).

As for the psalm’s historical background, Absalom’s revolt is the most likely scenario. David prays for “an undivided heart” (86:11), inferring it has not been steadfast. It was not steadfast in the Bathsheba incident, and after that he did not act wisely with his children (2Sam 13–14), eventuating in Absalom’s revolt (2Sam 15).

God’s deliverance of David in Absalom’s coup excelled expectations. At first, “the hearts of the people were with Absalom,” not with David (2Sam 15–16), but after David’s victory the tribes vied with one another for the honor of bringing King David back (2Sam 19:10–43). Moreover, his asked-for “sign” (i.e., something that makes recognizable divine action) in Psalm 86:17 may be “the forest swallowed up that day more men than the sword” (2Sam 18:8). That sign, however, pales in comparison to the sign his greater Son gave, vis-à-vis, his resurrection from the dead (cf. Matt 12:39ff). That sign greatly advances David’s vision in 86:9–10.

Introductory Petitions and Confession of Trust: 1–5

Petitions to Hear, Save, and Have Mercy: 1–4

“Incline your ear, LORD, and answer me (see 3:4; 17:6), for I am poor and needy” (see 35:10). “Guard my life” implies a dangerous situation, “for I am devoted (ḥāsîd; 4:3) to you (NLT). Save (see 3:7) your servant/slave” (see above), as required by a master, especially a slave “who trusts (see 13:5) in you (cf. 9:19; 25:2). Be gracious to me (see 6:2) . . . lift up my soul” (i.e., David puts his trust in God [see 24:4]).

Confidence in God’s Mercy: 5

“Certainly (NET) you are . . . good (see 25:7), abounding in steadfast love (i.e., exceeding human ḥesed [5:7]) to all who call upon you” (see 3:6). This confession transforms his plea “answer me” (86:1) into certainty: “you will answer me” (86:7).

Repetition of Petitions and Confidence: 6–7

Hear and Have Mercy: 6

“Give ear . . . to my prayer” (see Ps 17: superscript).

Confidence God Will Answer: 7

“In my time of trouble I cry out to you (see 3:4), for you will answer me” (CSB, NAB, NET, NLT; see 3:4).

Psalmist Praises Lord of All for His Incomparable Deeds: 8

“There is none like you among the gods” states the religious situation, not theological dogma (see 86:10) “. . . works like yours.”

All Nations Will Worship Lord of All for His Incomparable Deeds: 9

“All the nations you have made” by setting boundaries (cf. Deut 32:8) “will come” in a great pilgrimage to your temple (cf. Mic 4:1ff; Rev 20:24–26) and “shall bring glory (see 19:1) to your name (see 5:1). For you do wondrous things” (i.e., exceed accepted understandings of reality).

Israel’s God Alone Is Lord of All: 10

“You alone are God” is theological dogma.

Petition: To Be Taught the LORD’s Ways: 11

“Teach me your way,” for it cannot be found by accident. “That I may walk in your truth (and/or “live in reliance on you” [NIV]). Give me an undivided heart that I may fear your name” (i.e., exceed accepted understandings of reality [NIV], an equivalent to “fear of the LORD” [see 2:11; 19:7]).

Vow of Praise for Salvation and Mercy: 12–13

“I give thanks to you . . . delivered my soul from the depths of Sheol” (see 6:5), a prolepsis and a hyperbole, literally fulfilled in Christ’s resurrection.

Lament: The Godless Attack Psalmist: 14

Repeats 54:5.

Confession of Trust: In God’s Mercy: 15

“But . . . you, Lord, are merciful (see 25:6) and gracious (see 6:2) . . . steadfast love” (86:5) is the basis for the concluding petition, “be gracious to me.”

Closing Petitions: For Mercy, Salvation, and Punishment of Enemy: 16–17

A concluding petition is exceptional. “Turn (your attention) to me . . . and save the son of your maidservant” (better, “slave-girl” [see above]; cf. Gen 14:14; 2Tim 1:5). “Show me a sign of your favor (see above) . . . be put to shame . . . comfort me” is unlike imprecations that God ruin them.

The content and structure of this Song of Zion at a glance:

Superscript

I. Zion: The City of God: 1–3

Selah

II. Zion: The Birthplace of All Nations: 4–6

Selah

A. The LORD Proclaims Hostile Nations as Born in Zion: 4

B. Psalmist Reflects on Proclamation: 5–6

III. Zion: The Source of All Life: 7

“A Psalm of the Sons of Korah (Ps 42: superscript). A song.”³⁵²

The center and key verse (87:4) envisions the spiritual rebirth of Israel’s historic enemies in Zion. Selah (87:3, 6) formally marks off the stanzas.

This vision was fulfilled in Christ’s death and resurrection in Jerusalem (Luke 13:33) and in the Spirit’s empowering there the founding church to speak many languages and to carry the gospel to the ends of the earth (Acts 1:6; 2:1–11), making Gentiles heirs with Israel of their covenant promises (Eph 3:6). In the New Testament, Zion typifies both heavenly Jerusalem (Heb 12:22), “the mother of us all” (Gal 4:25ff; cf. Phil 4:20; Rev14:1–5), and Christ and his church (1Pet 2:4–9), God’s temple (1Cor 3:16; 6:19). The vision will be consummated in the eschaton (Rev 7:9ff; 21:26).

The first stanza reflects on Zion’s glory. “On the holy mountains (NKV, CSB; see 2:6) stands the city he (the LORD) has founded his city” (see 2Sam 5–6). It belongs to God and by his presence is pure, powerful, and protected (cf. 125:1ff; Heb 11:16). “The LORD loves (see 4:2; elects and cares for [cf. Deut 10:15]) . . . Zion,” the poetic name of Jerusalem (see 78:67ff). “Glorious things are spoken of you” introduces verse 4, and “city of God” looks back to verses 1–2. “Selah.”

The LORD Proclaims Hostile Nations as Born in Zion: 4

“Among those who know me (see 1:6; cf. Jer 31:34), I (the LORD) declare,”³⁵³ a performative speech act that legitimatizes what is spoken to the one addressed (e.g., “I pronounce you man and wife”), namely, to “Rahab (see 74:13ff) and Babylon”, a merism of the hostile super-powers to Israel’s south and north; “behold Philistia and Tyre,” a merism of hostile coastal neighbors to her south and north (cf. Joel 3:4); “with Cush” (cf. 2Chr 12:3), most distant from Israel (cf. Esth 1:1)—that is to say, to all nations. Pointing to each of them, the LORD says, “this one was born there” into spiritual kinship with him, which is emphatically repeated three times (87:5, 6).

Psalmist Reflects on Proclamation: 5–6

“This one . . . was born there” (better, “in her”; cf. Acts 22:28). “The Most High himself (see 7:17) will establish her,” guaranteeing their security. “The LORD (personally) records as he registers the peoples,” which is similar to the record in the Book of Life (see 69:28).

“Singers . . . say: ‘All my fountains (i.e., sources of life) are in you.’”

The content and structure of this complaint psalm at a glance:

Superscript

I. First Stanza: 1–9a

A. Address, Assertion of Prayer, and Petition to Be Heard: 1–2

B. Complaint: 3–9a

1. Counted among Those Descending to Sheol: 3–5

2. Put in Sheol by God: 6–7

3. God Caused Friends to Shun Him: 8–9a

II. Second Stanza: 9b–12

A. Address to God and Assertion of Prayer: 9b

B. Argument: No Praise in Sheol: 10–12

III. Third Stanza: 13–18

A. Address and Assertion of Prayer: 13

B. Complaint: Rejected and Afflicted by God: 14–18

“A Song . . . Leannoth.” This postscript of Psalm 87 exceptionally repeats its superscript before the expected “to the choirmaster . . . according to Mahalath Leannoth” (meaning uncertain).

“A Maskil (see 53:1) of Heman (“Faithful”) the Ezrahite” (the native?), a leading Levitical singer, instrumentalist, and cymbalist “under the hands of the king” (cf. 1Chr 15:17, 19; 16:42; 25:6), and the king’s seer (1Chr 25:5). God exalted him; he gave him fourteen sons—a doubling of seven, the number of divine completeness—and three daughters (25:6; cf. Job 42:13). He is to be distinguished from Heman the Judahite, who was noted for his sagacity (1Chr 2:6; 1Kgs 4:31 [Heb 5:11]).

Psalm 88 is a personal, not national, complaint psalm, for Heman distinguishes himself from other Israelites (88:8, 15). That genre’s introductory motif, an address to the LORD with a call to become involved, occurs three times (88:1–2, 9b, 13), dividing the psalm into its three stanzas. The first and last stanzas parallel each other. In their introductions, both cry out to the LORD, mention t^epilātî (“my prayer”; Ps 17: superscript), and personify it as a subject that “comes before you” (88:1–2, 13); their laments begin with reference to napšî (traditionally “my soul”; 88:3, 14) and end with “you have caused my companion/friend to shun me” (88:8, 18). The center stanza stands apart, arguing the case that God must act immediately to receive praise.

Atypically, no stanza develops the motif of assurance of salvation, and the motif of praise in the second stanza is voiced tentatively. Unrelenting and unrelieved complaint in bitter terms of indeterminate suffering—albeit no enemies are mentioned—marks this darkest of psalms. Indeed, “darkness” (Hebrew ḥšk) occurs in every stanza and has the last word (88:6, 12, 18; cf. Mark 15:33).

The typical “but you” that marks the shift from lament to confidence in complaint psalms³⁵⁴ here marks the shift from complaint to worse complaint: “you have put me in the depths of the Pit” (88:6). His suffering is due to God’s wrath (88:7, 16; cf. 6:1), but he seeks no cure through confession of sin (cf. 38:18) and finds that explanation unsatisfactory, for he continues to ask, “Why?” (88:14). Worst of all, God has both rejected his persistent earnest prayer, presumably for deliverance (88:14), and caused his friends to shun him; he is helpless and hopeless in this world. Heman is the quintessential person who inexplicably gets the short end of the stick.

In the first and last stanzas, he aims to be heard by arousing God’s sympathy; in the center stanza, he argues God is about to rob himself of a worshiper. Salvation history, which entails praise, does not happen in the grave he is entering.

But these motivations are not Heman’s primary message to us; the three introductions are his message (88:1, 9b, 13). In spite of unrelenting affliction and unanswered prayer, this hero of faith does not lose hope in the God of Israel. In the honor role of the faithful, he stands higher than even Job and Qoheleth, “the Teacher/Preacher” of the Book of Ecclesiastes. Unlike Job, Heman does not question God’s goodness (cf. Job 9:22–24; 10:1), nor does he question the value of his life, unlike Qoheleth (Eccl 4:2ff). Against all the contrary evidence to God’s goodness, the LORD is his God and remains his hope for salvation (88:1, the key verse). In each introduction he asserts his persistence in prayer: constantly (88:1), daily (88:9b), and yet this one more time (88:13). His hope and prayer are as insistent as his afflictions. His faith matches that of Job at his finest: “though he slays me, I will hope in him” (Job 13:15). Like Paul, he is perplexed but not driven to despair (2Cor 4:8). He is the quintessential righteous person: “even in death the righteous seek refuge in God” (Prov 14:32, NIV). They know “God’s will for life is greater than the reality of death.”³⁵⁵

According to both the psalm’s logic—darkness abruptly has the last word—and its canonical context, God will answer Heman’s prayer and Abel’s blood (Heb 12:24) in the Parousia. According to Heman’s full narrative, God exalted him before his death (see 1Chr 25:6).

Heman foreshadows the “Man of Sorrows” (Isa 53:3; see references to Mark 14–15 below). The psalm rightly belongs in the Good Friday liturgy and shows us God’s unconventional love.

Introduction: Address, Assertion of Prayer, and Petition to Be Heard: 1–2

“O LORD, God of my salvation (see 3:7; 31:14; 88:1; cf. Mark 15:34); I cry out (in distress) day and night before you” in the temple. “Let my (personified) prayer (see 17:1) come before you . . .”

Complaint: 3–9a

The psalmist is close to the underworld (88:3–5) and remote to God (88:6–8).

Counted among Those Descending to Sheol: 3–5

“For my soul (better, “I” [see 6:4]) is full of (or “sated with”) troubles (cf. Mark 14:33), and my life draws near to (or “touches”) Sheol (see 6:5). I am . . . set loose (better, “set free,” ironically from obligations) among the dead . . .”

Put in Sheol by God: 6–7

He is perplexed but never doubts God’s sovereignty. “Your wrath lies heavily upon me” is true of all sinners, not a confession of sin or an explanation of his suffering. He continues to ask, “why me?” (88:13). “You have put me . . . deep,” symbolic of distress. “You overwhelm me . . . waves,” symbolic of the forces of chaos and evil (see 42:8; 93:4; cf. Job 2:3b). “Selah.”

God Caused Friends to Shun Him: 8–9a

He is destitute of all human aid. “You . . . shun me” (cf. Mark 14:50); instead of provoking their compassion, “you have made me a horror (better, “repulsive”) to them . . .” His situation is hopeless. “I . . . cannot escape . . . dim with sorrow.”

Address to God and Assertion of Prayer:9b

“Every day . . .” To intensify his prayer, he postures, “I spread out my hands to you” (see 88:2).

Argument: No Praise in Sheol: 10–12

Heman pleads his case but never doubts God’s moral perfection or demands salvation. By six questions expecting a negative answer, he argues salvation and praise happens only in life, not in death. “Do you work wonders (happenings beyond the limits of human expectation) for the dead? Do the departed rise up (in the grave) to praise you? Selah. Is your steadfast love (see 5:7) declared in the grave, or your faithfulness (i.e., the reliability of your love) in Abaddon (Place of Destruction)? Are . . . righteousness (see 5:9) in the land of forgetfulness (cf. Eccl. 9:5)?” If God will save him, he must act now or never.

Address and Assertion of Prayer: 13

“But I, O LORD, cry out (in successive series of screams) to you; in the morning,” when kings hear judicial cases (see 5:3).

Complaint: Rejected and Afflicted by God: 14–18

“O LORD, why . . . hide your face from me” (88:13:1; i.e., unwilling to look at his pathetic state and show mercy).

The content and structure of this mixed psalm at a glance:

Superscript

I. Hymn: 1–37

A. Resolve to Praise God for Davidic Covenant: 1–4

1. Praise of God’s Steadfast Love Forever: 1–2

2. Recital of God’s Oath to David: 3–4

B. Reasons for Praise: 5–18

1. God’s Faithfulness and Might: 5–8

a. God’s Faithfulness: 5–6

b. God’s Might: 7–8

2. God’s Victory as Creator: 9–12

a. Rules Unruly Sea: 9–10

b. Owns Heavens and the Earth-Disc: 11–12

3. Praise of God’s Power and Righteous Kingdom: 13–18

a. God’s Power and Righteousness: 13–14

b. Blessedness of People Who Rejoice in God’s Rule: 15–16

c. Protection of Righteous People: 17–18

C. Recital of God’s Covenant to David: 19–37

1. Introduction: 19–20

2. Obligations Fulfilled during David’s Lifetime: 21–28

a. David Defeats His Enemies: 21–24

b. David Exalted: 25–28

3. Obligations to Be Fulfilled after David’s Death: 29–37

a. David’s Lineage and Throne Established Forever: 29

b. God Disciplines David’s Sons but Keeps Covenant: 30–37

II. Complaint and Plea: 38–51

A. Complaint: God Rejected Davidic Covenant: 38–45

B. Pleas to End Rejection and to Remember the Psalmist: 46–51

1. Remember Psalmist’s Mortality: 46–48

2. Remember Taunts of Enemy: 49–51

III. Doxology: 52

“A Maskil (see 32:1) of Ethan the Ezrahite.”

Ethan was a Levite appointed by David as a leading musician in temple worship (cf. 1Chr 15:17, 19; see Ps 88: superscript). The author of the psalm, however, may have been a temple leader descended from Ethan.

Apart from the doxology (89:52), the psalm consists both of a hymn that praises God for his promise to keep forever his covenant with David (see 2Sam 7:8–16; 1Chr 17:7–17; cf. 2Sam 23:1–7; 2Chr 13:5; 21:7) and of a complaint that God cast away that covenant and of an urgent plea to remember it. A selah occurs at the ends of the hymnist’s resolve to praise (89:4) and his reasons for praise (89:37). The doxology (89:52) ends both the psalm and Book III of the Psalter.

The event prompting the complaint seems to be a conflation of Nebuchadnezzar’s invasions of Jerusalem and the deportation of King Jehoiakin into exile in 597 BC (cf. 2Kgs 24:8–17; Jer 22:24–29) and of the destruction of Jerusalem in 587 BC (cf. 2Kgs 25). The complaint of verses 44–45 fits the deposition of Jehoiakin after a short reign of three months, but the complaint of verses 40–41 fits the fall of Jerusalem.

The psalmist addresses head-on the contradiction between the promise to David that his throne would endure forever and Jehoiakin’s loss of his throne, a fate similar to Saul’s, a contradiction that must have troubled all the faithful in exile.

If this scenario for the complaint is accurate, then the hymn was originally composed while the king still protected the congregation (see 89:15–18), and the exilic author identifies himself with the pre-exilic hymnist. The psalm is a personal testimony of faith, framed by personal praise (89:1–2) and a personal plea (89:50–51).

By ensconcing his complaint within a hymn that he makes his own (cf. Ps 102), the psalmist confesses his faith in God’s Word in circumstances that call its credibility into question. In addition to this contextualization of his complaint, his pleas that follow (89:46–51) show that his hope in God’s Word transcends his experience. His question “how long?” (89:46) and his plea “remember” (89:50) imply a hoped-for future glory that outlasts his tragedy. Moreover, he frames his psalm with references to God’s deeds of steadfast love during David’s lifetime (89:1) and to his hope for the restoration of those deeds in the future (89:1, 49). Like Heman in Psalm 88, in spite of unrelenting affliction, the psalmist does not lose hope in Israel’s God (see Ps 88). This hope in God’s Word that transcends experiences that deny it is the psalm’s message, and verse 1 is its key verse.

His testimony assures us of God’s faithfulness to keep his promises in circumstances that seem to deny it. The psalmist’s faith is foolish to those who believe only in what is seen.

The prophets at the time of the exile confirm the psalmist’s hope for the restoration of David’s house (cf. Jer 23:5ff; Isa 55:3; Ezek 34:33–34; 37:24–25). The New Testament recounts its realization in the birth of Jesus Christ (Luke 1:32; Acts 13:22) and in his resurrection and ascension to his heavenly throne (Luke 10:17ff; John 12:31; Acts 2:32–33; 7:55ff; 15:13–18; 1Cor 15:25; Eph 4:8; Rev 1:5); and it anticipates its consummation at the Parousia (1Cor 1:7ff; 1Thes 1:10; 2:19; 2Thes 1:7; 1Tim 4:8; Titus 2:13).

As in a symphony, where the overture sounds the themes of the following movements, so the psalm’s introduction, consisting of praise to God (89:1–2) and a recital of the Davidic covenant (89:3–4), introduces the hymn’s movements also consisting of praise to God (89:5–18) and a recital of the Davidic covenant (89:19–37). The introductions to the recitals escalate from “you have said” (89:3a) to “you spoke in a vision . . . you said” (89:19a).

Resolve to Praise God for Davidic Covenant: 1–4

“Forever” and “all generations” frames the introduction (89:1, 2, 4). The psalmist’s confession of faith (89:1–2) is based on God’s Word (89:3–4).

Praise of God’s Steadfast Love Forever: 1–2

“I will (volitional) sing of the (LORD’s) steadfast love” (see 5:7; plural [i.e., “the deeds of steadfast love”]). He repeats the key term “steadfast love” seven times (89:1, 2, 14, 24, 28, 33, 49), the numeral symbolizing divine perfection. Combined with another key term, “forever”—also repeated seven times (89:1, 2, 4, 29, 36, 37, 52)—they convey the hymn’s message; the LORD’s steadfast love endures to the House of David forever. “With . . . generations.” Though dead, we still hear his praise in Scripture. “For I say (NET) steadfast love will be built up” echoes the Davidic covenant (2Sam 7:5, 7, 13, 27) and signifies being made more permanent from generation to generation (see 89:4). “In the heavens,” symbolic of transcendence (cf. 89:29; Matt 6:9), “you will establish”—also an echo of the Davidic covenant (2Sam 7:16, 24, 26)—”your faithfulness,” perhaps a metonymy for the heavenly throne.

Recital of God’s Oath to David: 3–4

“You,” the LORD, “have said.” Recital of history is a liturgical form of praise and a theological interpretation of the original account. “I have made a covenant” glosses the Hebrew idiom “I have cut a covenant,” derived from the benefactor cutting up of animals to signify that he will die if he fails to uphold the obligations he takes upon himself. “My chosen one” is developed in verses 19b–20. “I have sworn” entails that the promised obligations are unconditional, unlike a prophecy, which is conditional upon the human response to it (cf. Jer 18:1–8; Heb 6:10).³⁵⁶ “My servant” (see Ps 18: superscript; 78:70; 86: superscript) also echoes the Davidic covenant (2Sam 7:5, 8). “‘I will establish . . . for all generations’” (2Sam 7:16) is developed in verses 34–37. “Selah.”

Reasons for Praise: 5–18

The hymn praises God for his incomparability (89:5–8), and then, as typical in the Psalter’s hymns, as Creator of nature (89:9–13) and of redemptive history (89:14–18). He focuses on God’s faithfulness: the divine council proclaims it (89:5–8); God demonstrated in his creation of the world that he had power to remain faithful (89:9–13); and he exercises his power in salvation history to uphold righteousness (89:14–18).

God’s Faithfulness and Might: 5–8

The divine council praises the LORD because none, even in the heavens, compares to him (89:5–6). Moreover, they fear the LORD, because none matches his strength (89:7–8).

God’s Faithfulness: 5–6

“The heavens”—a metonymy for the divine council—”praise your wonders” (88:10) in creation and salvation history. “Your faithfulness in the assembly of the holy ones “(see 82:1; cf. Job 15:15), called “heavenly beings” (see 29:1) in verse 6 (see 8:5; cf. Zech 14:5). The question “who in the skies (lit. “thin clouds”) can be compared to the LORD” strongly asserts that the LORD has no equal. To be totally reliable, God must be omnipotent.

God’s Might: 7–8

So our prophet reveals that Israel’s “God is greatly feared (NIV) in the council of the holy ones” (cf. Jer 23:18; 1Kgs 22:19–21; Job 1–2; Isa 6:1–8; 40:1–2). He now addresses the LORD: “O LORD God of Heaven’s Armies (NLT; i.e., the “holy ones” around the throne), who is mighty as you are . . . with your faithfulness”—perhaps a metonymy for the heavenly army—”all around you?” Reference to God’s might segues into the next section.

God’s Victory as Creator: 9–12

An emphatic vocative, “you” (God), frames this section on the LORD’s cosmic rule of the sea (89:9–10), the heavens (89:11a), and the earth (89:11b–12), which are due to his great power (89:13).

Rules Unruly Sea: 9–10

“You rule the raging of the sea; when its waves rise, you still them” (cf. Mark 4:34–41). In the first account of creation (Gen 1), God brought the land, which is habitable for life, out of primordial, uninhabitable deep waters (1:2). Here the poet represents the Creator of the land as ruler over that unruly sea, which symbolizes the disruptive forces that destroy life. He alludes to the imagery of ancient Near Eastern battle myths to debunk them. In these myths the deity who created the inhabitable world did so by overcoming an anti-creator sea-god.³⁵⁷ But in truth Israel’s God rules the unruly sea. “You crushed Rahab like a carcass” alludes to the slaying of a mythical sea monster, an unruly anti-creator god (Job 9:13; 26:12ff). “You scattered your enemies” infers Rahab should also be identified with Egypt (see 87:4). The magnificat alludes to this verse (Luke 1:51). The existence of the good earth in an unfathomably huge and chaotic universe reveals God’s eternal nature, power, and love. If God can overcome cosmic chaos, how much more can he defeat mere mortals?

Owns Heavens and the Earth-Disc: 11–12

“The heavens . . . the earth also are yours” is a merism for the visible universe. “The earth” is specified as “the world (i.e., the earth-disc in the midst of the sea) and all (i.e., flora and fauna) that is in it. You (emphatic) have founded them” in the seas and so made them permanent and enduring (see 24:1–2; 93:1–4). “The north and the south”—a merism for the whole earth-disc—”you have created.” Personified “Tabor and Hermon,” prominent peaks in Palestine, “joyously praise your name” for their existence. Mountains represent the oldest and most enduring aspects of the earth-disc.

Praise of God’s Power and Righteous Kingdom: 13–18

The psalmist introduces the next section by combining the praise of God’s power with his righteous kingdom (89:13–14). He then pronounces blessed those who joyfully submit to the LORD’s rule and his king (89:15–16), for God exalts them through his anointed king (89:17–18).

God’s Power and Righteousness: 13–14

“You (emphatic) have a mighty arm . . . high your right hand” and ready to strike (118:16; Isa 26:11). He uses his power to establish a righteous kingdom. Unlike other kingdoms, which are characterized by human greed, God’s kingdom uniquely exists to serve the needy. “Righteousness (see 5:8) and justice” (see 1:5)—a collocation meaning to save the oppressed—”are the foundation of your throne” (see 97:2). Personified “steadfast love and faithfulness (see 26:3) go before you” as heralds of his movements.

Blessedness of People Who Rejoice in God’s Rule:15–16

“Blessed (see 1:1) are the people who know (see 87:4) the festal shout,” an enthusiastic shout of acclamation by the worshipers for their God (see 27:6; 33:3; 47:1; 66:1). “Who walk . . . in the light of your face” (i.e., in your favor; see 4:6), which entails their obedience to him. “Who exult . . . day,” a parallel to the jubilant shout; “and in . . . exalted,” a parallel to living in God’s favor.

Protection of Righteous People: 17–18

“For you are their magnificent strength (CSB); by your favor,” an implicit confession of their subordination to God’s will, “our horn” (see 18:2), a metaphor of the king’s dignity and deadly strength in a battle (see 18:2), “is exalted,” a verb which signifies victories (see 75:10; 92:9ff). The psalmist elaborates: “for our shield,” another metaphor of the king as a warrior (see 3:3), “belongs,” as God’s property through anointing (see 89:21), “to . . . Israel.” The LORD is separate from all else by his unmatched moral purity and military power. The mention of the king segues into the next section.

Recital of God’s Covenant to David: 19–37

After an introduction (89:19–20), the poet divides the recital of the Davidic covenant into its two parts (see note 1): 89:20–28, 28–37.

Introduction: 19–20

He introduces the Davidic covenant by first noting its divine inspiration (89:19a).

“Of old you spoke in a vision (i.e., through a prophet [cf. Num 12:6]) to your loyal ones”³⁵⁸ (CSB; see 4:3; a metonymy for Nathan and David [2Sam 7:8]). “And said” (see 89:3a). He then notes David’s divine election (89:19b–20). “I have granted help (see 20:2) to one who is mighty (or “a champion” [see 19:6]); I have exalted one chosen from the people (cf. Deut 17:15). I have found (i.e., “elected” [cf. Deut 32:10; Hos 9:10]) David, my servant (see 89:3); with my holy oil I have anointed him” (cf. 1Sam 16:3, 13), making him God’s property (see 89:18; 2:2).

Obligations Fulfilled during David’s Lifetime: 21–28

A promise of God’s steadfast love ends this section’s two parts (89:24, 28).

David Defeats His Enemies: 21–24

“My hand will sustain him (NIV); my arm shall strengthen him,” the arm and hand endowed with power (89:13; see 18:1–2). “No enemy will be able to exact tribute from him (NET) . . . I will crush”—as God had done to Rahab (89:10)—”his foes before him . . . and in my name (see 89:18) shall his horn be exalted” (see 89:17). Kidner comments, “Here was no self-made king and empire-builder, carving out a career for himself. And with God behind it, such a story as his could not simply break off unfinished.”³⁵⁹

David Exalted: 25–28

“I will set his [left] hand on the sea (i.e., the Mediterranean) and his right hand on the rivers” (the Tigris-Euphrates; see 72:8; 80:11); and so David fulfilled God’s covenant promise to Abraham (Gen 15:18). The promise that God would be a father to David’s son (2Sam 7:14) is transformed into a promise to be a father to David himself (see Ps 2:7–10). “He shall cry to me, ‘You are my Father, my God (see 63:1, 18), and the Rock (see 18:2) of my salvation’” (see 3:7). In response, God adopts him as his son. “And I will make him the firstborn,” the son who held the position of honor and favor and who inherited the double portion of the father’s inheritance (Deut 21:17) and blessing (see Gen 27:1–4; 48:17ff). “The highest of the kings of the earth.” John, as prophet, borrows the language of this verse (cf. Rev 1:5). “My steadfast love . . . will stand firm for him” segues into the obligations after David’s death.

Obligations to Be Fulfilled after David’s Death: 29–37

This section is framed by “I will establish his offspring forever” (89:29a)/“it will be established forever” (89:36) and by likening its endurance to astral bodies (89:29b, 37). The frame clarifies that “the heavens endure” (89:29a) means “to endure . . . like the sun . . . like the moon.”

David’s Lineage and Throne Established Forever: 29

The recital in verse 29 essentially repeats 2 Samuel 7:16: David’s descendants and throne will endure forever.

God Disciplines David’s Sons but Keeps Covenant: 30–37

The recital continues by theologically interpreting 2 Samuel 7:14. As for 2 Samuel 7:14a, God extends the promise from Solomon to all of David’s sons, and he defines “when he commits iniquity” to mean he violates the Mosaic Law. “If his children forsake my law” . . .. As for 2 Samuel 7:14b, he tersely repeats it.

As for keeping David’s line forever (89:34–37), the LORD escalates 2 Samuel 7:15 to an extended oath. “Once . . . forever” (cf. John 12:34) . . .. If the “faithful witness in the skies” (lit. clouds) is a metonymy for the moon, the recital alludes to the ancient Near Eastern practice in making treaties to summon the sun-god and/or the moon-god as witnesses to a treaty. Moses summoned the heavens and the earth to witness the Mosaic covenant (Deut 32:1; cf. Mic 6:1–2). If so, God summoned the moon to be a witness to the Davidic covenant. These appeals in Scripture to inanimate objects such as the moon and mountains to validate an ancient oath presume the people take for granted that a reliable tradition has been passed on through the generations. “Selah.”

“But now” abruptly changes the mood of praise to complaint. This section also has two parts: a complaint that God renounced his covenant with David and a plea that God remember the psalmist’s mortality and humiliation. His plea implies his hope that God’s casting away of the covenant is temporary, not final. When my boys abused a Lionel train set, I took it away from them until they were mature enough to use it responsibly.

Complaint: God Rejected Davidic Covenant: 38–45

The section begins with an emphatic “you.” Furthermore, a verse initial “you” is repeated, making a sevenfold repetition of “you.” Emphatically, however bitter his complaint, the psalmist never doubts that the LORD rules salvation history.

“You have cast off and rejected” (see 88:13) contrasts sharply with David’s election (89:20). “You are full of wrath” assumes the Sovereign caused his king’s humiliation (see 88:7). The king’s loss of his throne exceeds the discipline threatened in 2 Samuel 7:14, for the threat explicitly did not include the loss of the throne as happened to the House of Saul. “Your anointed” extends David’s anointing (89:20) to his sons, albeit the form is singular and refers to one son in particular. “You have spurned (translation mine³⁶⁰) the covenant with your servant,” a painful contrast to the promise of love to him (89:33–36). “You have . . . cast his throne to the ground” (89:44b) strikingly contrasts with the promise “his throne will endure forever” (89:36). Nevertheless, God does not say he annulled the covenant or that he rejected it forever.

The glaring contrasts between the promises to David during his lifetime (89:20–27) and the complaint regarding his son’s misfortunes imply that the covenant envisioned that David’s sons would enjoy his successes. Verse 50 makes that implication explicit. There is a striking disparity between “you . . . neighbors” and the promises in verses 22–23. The complaint “you . . . sword” reverses the promises to David in verses 21 and 23. “You . . . cease” conspicuously differs from verses 26–27. “You . . . youth” probably refers to his premature loss of vigor and splendor, not death, as the parallel, “you have covered him with shame,” suggests. His shame segues into the next unit, in which the psalmist himself feels the mockery that dogs the steps of the anointed.

Pleas to End Rejection and to Remember the Psalmist: 46–51

Remember Psalmist’s Mortality: 46–48

The questions “How long, O LORD (see 4:2; 6:3) . . . How long will your wrath (see 2:5) burn like fire” vent the psalmist’s exasperation at the situation, but more importantly they imply his hope that the covenant’s promises still stand. His plea “remember how short my time is” adds to his hopeful urgency for the restoration of David before his death. The psalmist may have lived long enough to see Jehoiakin exalted above the other kings in exile (2Kgs 25:27–30), a glimmer of David’s full restoration. “For what vanity you have created all the children of man” (see 37:20; 39:4–6) implies all mankind dies in unsatisfied longing.

Remember Taunts of Enemy: 49–51

The question “where are your earlier faithful deeds, O Lord of All (translation mine; see 16:2) . . . in accordance with your reliable oath to David?” (NET) adds to the psalmist’s hope for a cessation of God’s wrath, his hope for a full restoration of David’s kingdom. His plea “remember, O Lord, how your servants (i.e., the faithful people, according to the parallel) are mocked” entails the faithful feel their king’s humiliation (cf. 69:9; Rom 15:3). The psalmist feels it: “how I bear . . . anointed.”

“Amen” (see 41:13). The faithful persevere in hope.

299. I am heavily indebted to Martyn Lloyd Jones, Faith on Trial (1982).

300. Beth Bridgers, “Psalm 73” (Regent College, 1977), 19.

301. NIV conjectures changing ləmôtām (“at their death”) to lāmô tām (“they have . . .; . . . healthy”).

302. ANET, 661.

303. MT reads “their eyes (‘ēynēmô) come out of fat.” NIV reads with LXX, Syr., and Vulg, ‘ăwōnāmô (“their iniquity [comes out of fat]”) and interprets “fat” to signify an unreceptive heart.

304. Waltke and De Silva, Proverbs: A Shorter Commentary (2021), 41–45.

305. C. S. Lewis, The Weight of Glory (1942), 5, 7.

306. Antiochus Epiphanes destroyed the temple at a time when prophecy had ceased (cf. 1Mac 4:46; 9:27; 14:41), but Antiochus did not burn it to the ground as described in 74:7. He burnt its gates and porch (1Mac 4:38; 2Mac 8:33; 1:8) but not the sanctuary itself.

307. Ross, Psalms, 579.

308. LXX reads, “all the festivals.”

309. See Waltke, TWOT, 970.

310. Alter, The Book of Psalms, 262.

311. McCann, “Psalms,” 977.

312. Cf. Kidner, 303.

313. ESV opts to translate the ambiguous Hebrew verbs as present tense in 77:2–5.

314. See 16:2.

315. The Hebrew form is a “pseudo-imperative” for past tense (GKC 108g; IBHS, 34.5.3).

316. ESV opts to add “I said” and to interpret the ambiguous Hebrew verbs as imperatives: “Let me remember . . .” and “Let me meditate . . .”

317. Qal infinitive construct of ḥālal (“to pierce, wound”; GKC 67r).

318. Hebrew word is a homonym meaning either “to change” or “years.”

319. KJV translates, “This is my infirmity, but I will remember” ( = “I will appeal [ESV, NIV] the years.”) The addition of “but I will remember/appeal,” however, has no textual support and is rejected by most other modern versions. They read: “has changed” (NAS, NRS); “lost its strength” (NJB); “become inactive” (NET); and “has turned against me” (NLT).

320. So the MT oral tradition. The MT written tradition is “I will make mention of.”

321. “When” (ESV) is not in the Hebrew text.

322. Judith Gaertner, “The Historical Psalms, A Study of Psalms 78, 105, 106, 135, and 136 as Key Hermeneutical Texts in the Psalter,” Hebrew Bible and Ancient Israel, vol. 4 (2015), esp. 375–99.

323. Perowne, The Book of Psalms, 60.

324. McCann, “Matthew,” 993.

325. Kidner, Psalms 73–150, 313.

326. Hossfeld and Zenger, Psalms 2, 283.

327. 78:38 occurs at the center of the Psalter according to b. Qid. 30a, cited by Hossfeld and Zenger, Psalms 2, 285.

328. BDB, 16, entry 4, s.v. ’ôt.

329. HALOT, 337, s.v. ḥāsîl.

330. HALOT, 83, s.v. ’arbeh.

331. Edward L. Greenstein, “Mixing Memory and Design; Reading Psalm 78,” Prooftexts, vol. 10, no. 2, pt. 2 (Indiana University Press, May, 1990), 197–218, esp. 207.

332. Lundbom (Jeremiah 1–20, 611) arbitrarily credits the citation to an editor of Jeremiah.

333. Darius is probably Cyrus.

334. TDOT, 5.478, s.v. yāda‘.

335. Kidner, Psalms 73–150, 316.

336. Waltke, Micah, 329, citing G. E, Mendenhall, The Tenth Generation: The Origins of the Biblical Tradition (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1973), 70–83.

337. HALOT, 452, s.v. yātar Hi. entry 4: “to have priority”; cf. Genesis 49:3, 4.

338. Only Judah is reckoned as the southern tribe (cf. 1Kgs 11:13, 32, 36).

339. McCann, “The Book of Psalms,” 999.

340. An unstated full amount is normally an ephah (Exod 29:40 + 17) = a bath (Ezek 45:11) = six gallons.

341. McClintock and Strong, Cyclopedia (https://www.biblicalcyclopedia.com/V/vine.htmlc).

342. NIV rightly translates “son” by “vine” in Genesis 49:22, where it occurs in a metaphor for Joseph (see 80:1).

343. NIV probably interprets ’ël as a superlative.

344. Ross, The Psalms, vol. 2, 718.

345. Kirkpatrick, The Psalms, 495.

346. Ibid., 97.

347. New Bible Dictionary: Second Edition, J. D. Douglas, ed. (Wheaton, Ill: Tyndale House, 1982), 845.

348. Tate, Psalms 51–100, 348.

349. Tate, Psalms 51–100, 178.

350. Tate, Psalms 51–100; 853; Hossfeld and Zenger, Psalms 2, 349.

351. HALOT, 765, s.v. spp.

352. For an excellent discussion of the psalm’s theology, see James A. Grant, “Psalm 87 and the Promise of Inclusion,” in Reading the Psalms Theologically, ed. David Howard Jr. and Andrew Schmutzer (Bellingham, Washington: Lexham Academic, 2023), 207–21.

353. Tate, Psalms 51–100, 286.

354. Gunkel. Introduction, 79.

355. McCann, “Psalms,” 1030.

356. Richard L. Pratt, Jr., “Historical Contingency ad Biblical Predictions,” in Way of Wisdom (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2000), 280–303.

357. Mary K. Wakeman, God’s Battle with the Monster: A Study in Biblical Imagery (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1973).

358. Many Hebrew manuscripts read singular (ESV).

359. Kidner, 354.

360. The precise meaning of the Hebrew verb is uncertain, for it occurs elsewhere only in Lamentations 2:7. It is probably a synonym of “reject”; “renounced” (ESV, “to formally abandon a possession” connotes finality) is too strong.

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