Major works in modern philosophy and psychology, like Martha Nussbaum’s Upheavals of Thought: The Intelligence of Emotions (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001) and Richard Lazarus’s Emotion and Adaptation (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994), have been instrumental in reviving the ancient view that emotions are rational, value-laden, and shaped by cultural context. When applied to narrative, this cognitive theory of emotion may bear fresh insights into the motivations, values, judgments, and goals of characters communicated through their emotions. Yet, while some recent dissertations and scholarly works have applied cognitive theory to biblical texts, little has been written that is more broadly accessible to students and laypersons. F. Scott Spencer’s recent monograph, Passions of the Christ: The Emotional Life of Jesus in the Gospels, offers just such a helpful entry.

Spencer sets out to “examine [Jesus’s] reported passions in light of ‘normal’ human experience as understood by ancient and modern emotion theorists and scientists” (p. 9). In part 1, Spencer provides a brief overview of the cognitive theory of emotion and considers the place of emotion within theology (i.e., the discussion regarding divine passibility or impassibility) and the problems it poses. Part 2 analyzes the negative emotions of Jesus, namely anger, anguish, and disgust, while part 3 focuses on Jesus’s positive emotions, namely surprise, love, compassion, and joy.

In the book’s theoretical section (chs. 1–2), Spencer first draws upon several contemporary psychologists and philosophers to provide a broad outline of the cognitive theory of emotion. Spencer then supports these claims with neurological studies that help to isolate the evaluative function of emotion in the human brain. In chapter 2, Spencer tackles the problem of divine passibility. He rejects the “limited passibility” (p. 24) of Aquinas and Rob Lister for fear that it risks “making God’s absolute, autocratic will into an idol” (p. 25), arguing, rather, for a mutable and passible God. Many readers will likely find Spencer’s treatment of the problems of divine passibility, change, and limited omniscience lacking. However, given its limited space, this section serves as an efficient overview of the relevant historical positions.

Each of the eight chapters of the book’s exegesis portion is structured around a different emotion. Each chapter first dives deeper into modern emotion theory and relevant ancient texts to explain how a particular emotion functions and what it may signify. Next, Spencer analyzes select Gospel pericopes in which Jesus expresses or experiences that emotion, at times rounding out his exegesis with comparisons to Early Jewish and Greco-Roman literature. Finally, each chapter aims to determine what Jesus’s emotional responses communicate in light of his values, context, and goals.

Spencer’s treatment of Jesus’s anger (ὀργισθεὶς) toward a leper in Mark 1:40–45 will serve to exemplify his approach (most manuscripts read σπλαγχνισθείςin v. 41). Spencer first draws upon Aristotle, Martha Nussbaum, and modern “appraisal theory” to establish that anger is a “confrontational emotion triggered by a demanding offense against the self or relevant others” (p. 47). Spencer concludes from this theoretical basis, and from indications of Jesus’s aims elsewhere in Mark, that the leper’s words entail “a slighting of Jesus’s indomitable will to flourishing life” by questioning his “life-giving purpose” (p. 52). Spencer goes on to address other episodes of Jesus’s anger in a similar fashion, at times drawing upon the OT prophets for parallels.

Part 2 continues with chapters 4–5, both of which deal with episodes of Jesus’s grief. Chapter 6 analyzes episodes of disgust. Part 3 focuses on Jesus’s positive emotions. Chapter 7 examines instances of surprise. Chapter 8 looks at Jesus’s love and compassion in “pastoral ministry,” while chapter 9 deals with the same emotion but in the context of discipleship. The final chapter examines passages that feature the joy of Jesus. Spencer concludes the study with a brief epilogue.

While the ambitious scope of the project too often necessitates brevity in discussions that need a fuller treatment, one must commend Spencer for the efficiency with which he handles his complex and demanding subject matter. The book covers a great deal of theoretical and textual ground but treats theories and texts with enough attention to make (mostly) compelling arguments. Spencer’s writing is accessible and fluid. The reader is often rewarded with intellectually refreshing and pastorally fruitful readings of challenging Gospel stories.

The book is not without problems. Spencer does little to bridge the gap between the emotion theories he draws upon and the Gospel authors and their audiences. One cannot assume that the evangelists and their readers were acquainted with Aristotle and the Stoics. Yet, Spencer does not provide a method for determining whether a biblical author is working with any particular understanding of emotion in a given pericope. Perhaps related to this methodological lacuna, Spencer at times drifts into anachronism. For example, Spencer offers (sometimes rather flippant) criticisms of Jesus for not satisfying modern, Western expectations for interpersonal engagement, as in his readings of Mark 9:14–29 (especially p. 201) and Mark 7:24–30 (especially pp. 137–139).

The Passions of the Christ is an excellent study for pastors, laypeople, and counselors looking for fresh insights into Jesus’s emotions in the Gospels. The book is also ideal for graduate students looking for a novice-friendly introduction to emotion theory in NT studies.